Hearing Loss, Dizziness, and Carbohydrate Metabolism
Int Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2016 Jul;20(3):261-70
Authors: Albernaz PL
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Metabolic activity of the inner ear is very intense, and makes it sensitive to changes in the body homeostasis. This study involves a group of patients with inner ear disorders related to carbohydrate metabolism disturbances, including hearing loss, tinnitus, dizziness, and episodes of vertigo.
OBJECTIVES: To describe the symptoms of metabolic inner ear disorders and the examinations required to establish diagnoses. These symptoms are often the first to allow for an early diagnosis of metabolic disorders and diabetes.
METHODS: Retrospective study of 376 patients with inner ear symptoms suggestive of disturbances of carbohydrate metabolism. The authors present patientś clinical symptoms and clinical evaluations, with emphasis on the glucose and insulin essays.
RESULTS: Authors based their conclusions on otolaryngological findings, diagnostic procedures and treatment principles. They found that auditory and vestibular symptoms usually occur prior to other manifestations of metabolic changes, leading to an early diagnosis of hyperinsulinemia, intestinal sugar malabsorption or diabetes. Previously undiagnosed diabetes mellitus type II was found in 39 patients.
CONCLUSIONS: The identification of carbohydrate metabolism disturbances is important not only to minimize the patients' clinical symptoms, but also to help maintain their general health.
PMID: 27413410 [PubMed]
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Τρίτη 19 Ιουλίου 2016
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma
Cigarette use, comorbidities, and prognosis in a prospective head and neck squamous cell carcinoma population:
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ABSTRACT
Background
To better understand the associations between a history of tobacco use and survival outcomes, cigarette use was prospectively surveyed in 687 previously untreated patients with cancer of the oral cavity (n = 271), oropharynx (n = 257), larynx (n = 135), or hypopharynx (n = 24).
Methods
Kaplan–Meier and Cox models explored the associations of tobacco use intensity (packs/day), duration (years of use), and timing before diagnosis with overall survival (OS), disease-specific survival (DSS), and recurrence-free survival (RFS).
Results
Cigarette use duration, timing, and intensity were significant predictors for all outcomes in univariate analysis. Never smoking and pack-years were not significantly associated with outcomes after adjustment for prognostic factors, such as stage, comorbidities, and human papillomavirus (HPV) status, which were strongly associated with clinical outcomes.
Conclusion
The findings confirm the association between smoking history and survival and the importance of clinical variables in evaluating smoking as a prognostic factor. Timing, intensity, and duration of cigarette use should be considered with other prognostic factors when considering risk stratification for treatment planning. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck, 2016
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Expanded Cheek-Shaped Flap for Aesthetic Cheek Reconstruction in the Cervicoperiauricular Area.
Expanded Cheek-Shaped Flap for Aesthetic Cheek Reconstruction in the Cervicoperiauricular Area
Ann Plast Surg. 2016;77 Suppl 1:S43-8
Authors: Tian J, Fan J, Liu L, Gan C, Yang Z, Chen W, Yin Z
Abstract
BACKGROUND: The cervical area is well acknowledged as an ideal donor site for aesthetic reconstruction of the cheek, and tissue expansion may play an important role for maximally achieving such a purpose. However, the conventional design of the expanded cervical flap generally results in unsightly morbidity of the donor site. The aim of this study is to evaluate the results of using an improvised cervical expanded flap in aesthetic reconstruction of the cheek.
METHODS: From July 2004 to October 2012, a total of 23 burn sequelae patients (30 cheeks) underwent cheek reconstruction with an expanded flap that originated from the cervicoperiauricular area. The procedures were initially carried out with the insertion of a round tissue expander in the cervicoperiauricular area, followed by serial inflation of the expander, and finally, transplantation of the expanded flap to the cheek in a rotation advancement fashion. The donor site closure was along the auricular sulcus.
RESULTS: The average area of the harvested flaps was 9.7 × 8.1 cm. All the flaps completely survived, only one major complication occur-a dome exposure of the tissue expander after the expansion was completed. The flap was salvaged, and the transfer stage was done without intact. Minor complications after flap transfer include: widened scar at the donor site, a "dog-ear" needing additional minor surgery, distal part of the flap transient congestion. The patients achieved very satisfactory results functionally and aesthetically.
CONCLUSIONS: Using the expanded cheek-shaped flap technique can provide a safe, thin, and color-matched flap in aesthetic reconstruction of the cheek with minimal donor site morbidity.
PMID: 27414004 [PubMed - in process]
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Ann Plast Surg. 2016;77 Suppl 1:S43-8
Authors: Tian J, Fan J, Liu L, Gan C, Yang Z, Chen W, Yin Z
Abstract
BACKGROUND: The cervical area is well acknowledged as an ideal donor site for aesthetic reconstruction of the cheek, and tissue expansion may play an important role for maximally achieving such a purpose. However, the conventional design of the expanded cervical flap generally results in unsightly morbidity of the donor site. The aim of this study is to evaluate the results of using an improvised cervical expanded flap in aesthetic reconstruction of the cheek.
METHODS: From July 2004 to October 2012, a total of 23 burn sequelae patients (30 cheeks) underwent cheek reconstruction with an expanded flap that originated from the cervicoperiauricular area. The procedures were initially carried out with the insertion of a round tissue expander in the cervicoperiauricular area, followed by serial inflation of the expander, and finally, transplantation of the expanded flap to the cheek in a rotation advancement fashion. The donor site closure was along the auricular sulcus.
RESULTS: The average area of the harvested flaps was 9.7 × 8.1 cm. All the flaps completely survived, only one major complication occur-a dome exposure of the tissue expander after the expansion was completed. The flap was salvaged, and the transfer stage was done without intact. Minor complications after flap transfer include: widened scar at the donor site, a "dog-ear" needing additional minor surgery, distal part of the flap transient congestion. The patients achieved very satisfactory results functionally and aesthetically.
CONCLUSIONS: Using the expanded cheek-shaped flap technique can provide a safe, thin, and color-matched flap in aesthetic reconstruction of the cheek with minimal donor site morbidity.
PMID: 27414004 [PubMed - in process]
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Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS) The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition (beta version)
ICHD-3 beta
Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS)
The International Classification of Headache Disorders,
3rd edition (beta version)
Copyright
The International Classification of Headache Disorders,
3rd edition (beta version), may be reproduced freely for
scientific, educational or clinical uses by institutions,
societies or individuals. Otherwise, copyright belongs
exclusively to the International Headache Society.
Reproduction of any part or parts in any manner for
commercial uses requires the Society's permission,
which will be granted on payment of a fee. Please contact
the publisher at the address below.
International Headache Society 2013.
Applications for copyright permissions should be submitted
to Sage Publications Ltd, 1 Oliver's Yard, 55
City Road, London EC1Y 1SP, United Kingdom (tel:
þ44 (0) 20 7324 8500; fax: þ44 (0) 207 324 8600)
(www.sagepub.co.uk).
Translations
The International Headache Society expressly permits
translations of all or parts of ICHD-3 beta for purposes
of field testing and/or education, but will not endorse
them. Endorsements may be given by member national
societies; where these exist, such endorsement should be
sought. All translations are required to be registered
with the International Headache Society. Before
embarking upon translation, prospective translators
are advised to enquire whether a translation exists
already. All translators should be aware of the need
to use rigorous translation protocols. Publications
reporting studies making use of translations of all or
any part of ICHD-3 beta should include a brief description
of the translation process, including the identities
of the translators (of whom there should always be
more than one).
Cephalalgia
33(9) 629–808
! International Headache Society 2013
Reprints and permissions:
http://ift.tt/1fRzuSZ
DOI: 10.1177/0333102413485658
cep.sagepub.com
International Headache Society 2013
First Headache Classification Committee
Jes Olesen, Denmark (Chairman)
Andre´ Bes, France
Robert Kunkel, USA
James W Lance, Australia
Giuseppe Nappi, Italy
Volker Pfaffenrath, Germany
Frank Clifford Rose, United Kingdom
Bruce S Schoenberg, USA
Dieter Soyka, Germany
Peer Tfelt-Hansen, Denmark (Secretary)
K Michael A Welch, USA
Marica Wilkinson, United Kingdom
Second Headache Classification Committee
Jes Olesen, Denmark (Chairman)
Marie-Germaine Bousser, France
Hans-Christoph Diener, Germany
David Dodick, United States of America
Michael First, United States of America
Peter J Goadsby, United Kingdom
Hartmut Go¨ bel, Germany
Miguel JA Lainez, Spain
James W Lance, Australia
Richard B Lipton, United States of America
Giuseppe Nappi, Italy
Fumihiko Sakai, Japan
Jean Schoenen, Belgium
Stephen D Silberstein, United States of America
Timothy J Steiner, United Kingdom (Secretary)
Third Headache Classification Committee
Jes Olesen, Denmark (Chairman)
Lars Bendtsen, Denmark
David Dodick, United States of America
Anne Ducros, France
Stefan Evers, Germany
Michael First, United States of America
Peter J Goadsby, United States of America
Andrew Hershey, United States of America
Zaza Katsarava, Germany
Morris Levin, United States of America
Julio Pascual, Spain
Michael B Russell, Norway
Todd Schwedt, United States of America
Timothy J Steiner, United Kingdom (Secretary)
Cristina Tassorelli, Italy
Gisela M Terwindt, The Netherlands
Maurice Vincent, Brazil
Shuu-Jiun Wang, Taiwan
Members of third headache classification
working groups
Working group on migraine:
J Olesen, Denmark (Chairman)
(jes.olesen@regionh.dk)
S Evers, Germany; A Charles, USA; A. Hershey,
USA; R Lipton, USA; M First, USA; H Bolay,
Turkey; M Lante´ri-Minet, France; EA MacGregor,
UK; T Takeshima, Japan; HW Schytz, Denmark.
Working group on tension-type headache:
L Bendtsen, Denmark (Chairman)
(lars.bendtsen@regionh.dk)
S Ashina, USA; MT Goicochea, Argentina;
K Hirata, Japan; K Holroyd, USA; C Lampl,
Austria; RB Lipton, USA; DD Mitsikostas,
Greece; J Schoenen, Belgium.
Working group on trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias:
P Goadsby, USA (Chairman)
(peter.goadsby@ucsf.edu)
C Boes, USA; C Bordini, Brazil; E Cittadini, UK;
A Cohen, UK; M Leone, Italy; A May, Germany;
L Newman, USA; J Pareja, Spain; J-W Park, South
Korea; T Rozen, USA; E Waldenlind, Sweden.
Working group on other primary headache disorders:
S-J Wang, Taiwan (Chairman)
(sjwang@vghtpe.gov.tw)
A Ducros, France; S Evers, Germany; J-L Fuh,
Taiwan; A Ozge, Turkey; JA Pareja, Spain;
J Pascual, Spain; M Peres, Brazil; W Young, USA;
S-Y Yu, China.
Working group on headache attributed to trauma or injury
to the head and/or neck:
T Schwedt, USA (Chairman)
(Schwedt.Todd@mayo.edu)
I Abu-Arafeh, UK; J Gladstone, Canada; S-J
Huang, Taiwan; R Jensen, Denmark; JMA Lainez,
Spain; D Obelieniene, Lithuania; P Sandor,
Switzerland; AI Scher, USA.
Working group on headache attributed to cranial or
cervical vascular disorder:
A Ducros, France (Chairman)
(anne.ducros@lrb.aphp.fr)
630 Cephalalgia 33(9)
International Headache Society 2013
M Arnold, Switzerland; M Dichgans, Germany;
E Houdart, France; J Ferro, Portugal; E Leroux,
Canada; Y-S Li, China; A Singhal, USA;
G Tietjen, USA.
Working group on headache attributed to non-vascular
intracranial disorder:
DW Dodick, USA (Chairman)
(Dodick.David@mayo.edu)
S Evers, Germany; D Friedman, USA; S Kirby,
Canada; B Mokri, USA; J Pascual (Spain); M
Peres, Brazil; A Purdy, Canada; K Ravishankar,
India; P Sandor, Switzerland; W Schievink, USA;
R Stark, Australia; F Taylor, USA.
Working group on headache attributed to a substance or
its withdrawal:
MB Russell, Norway (Chairman)
(m.b.russell@medisin.uio.no)
L Bendtsen, Denmark; J-L Fuh, Taiwan;
Z Katsarava, Germany; AV Krymchantowski,
Brazil; M Leone, Italy; K Ravishankar, India;
A Tugrul, Turkey; NJ Wiendels, The Netherlands.
Working group on headache attributed to infection:
C Tassorelli, Italy (Chairman)
(cristina.tassorelli@mondino.it)
E Marchioni, Italy; V Osipova, Russia;
K Ravishankar, India; L Savi, Italy; F Sakai,
Japan; JR Berger, (USA).
Working group on headache attributed to disorder of
homoeostasis:
J Pascual, Spain (Chairman)
(juliopascualgomez@gmail.com)
M Bigal, Brazil; C Bordini, Brazil; J Gonza´ lez
Menacho, Spain; F Mainardi, Italy; A Ozge,
Turkey; J Pereira-Monteiro, Portugal; M Serrano-
Duen˜ as, Ecuador.
Working group on headache or facial pain attributed to
disorder of the cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses,
teeth, mouth or other facial or cervical structure:
M Levin, USA (Chairman)
(mo.levin@hitchcock.org)
R Cady, USA; C Fernandez de las Pen˜ as, Spain;
D Friedman, USA; V Guidetti, Italy; J Lance,
Australia; P Svensson, Denmark.
Working group on headache attributed to psychiatric
disorder:
M Vincent, Brazil (Chairman)
(maurice.vincent@me.com)
M First, USA; E Loder, USA; AE Lake III, USA;
F Radat, France; JI Escobar, USA.
Working group on painful cranial neuropathies and other
facial pains:
Z Katsarava, Germany (Chairman)
(zaza.katsarava@uni-due.de)
R Benoliel, Israel; C Sommer, Germany; A Woda,
France; J Zakrzewska UK; V Aggarwal, UK;
L Bonamico, Argentina; D Ettlin, USA; S Graff-
Radford, USA; J-P Goulet, Canada;
S Ja¨ a¨ skela¨ inen, Finland; V Limmroth, Germany;
A Michelotti, Italy; D Nixdorf, USA;
M Obermann, Germany; R Ohrbach, USA;
J Pereira-Monteiro, Portugal; P Pionchon, France;
T Renton, UK; S De Siqueira, Brazil; C Wo¨ ber-
Bingo¨ l, Austria.
Working group for appendix disorders and criteria:
GM Terwindt, The Netherlands (Chairman)
(G.M.Terwindt@lumc.nl)
Acknowledgements
The work of the Headache Classification Committee of the
International Headache Society is financially supported
exclusively by the International Headache Society. There
has been no commercial sponsorship of the International
Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of Timothy Steiner,
first for his efforts as honorary secretary of the Classification
Committee and second for his work on copy-editing and preparation
of this manuscript.
ICHD-3 beta 631
International Headache Society 2013
Table of Contents
Preface 633
How to use the classification 634
Classification 636
Part one: the primary headaches
1. Migraine 644
2. Tension-type headache 659
3. Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias 665
4. Other primary headache disorders 672
Part two: the secondary headaches
Introduction 684
5. Headache attributed to trauma or injury to the head and/or neck 686
6. Headache attributed to cranial or cervical vascular disorder 694
7. Headache attributed to non-vascular intracranial disorder 713
8. Headache attributed to a substance or its withdrawal 725
9. Headache attributed to infection 740
10. Headache attributed to disorder of homoeostasis 749
11. Headache or facial pain attributed to disorder of the cranium, neck,
eyes, ears, nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or other facial or cervical structure 759
12. Headache attributed to psychiatric disorder 770
Part three: painful cranial neuropathies, other facial pains and other headaches
13. Painful cranial neuropathies and other facial pains 774
14. Other headache disorders 787
Appendix
Definition of terms 788
632 Cephalalgia 33(9)
Preface
After two very successful editions of the International
Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD), a third
is now close to being final. The members of the
Classification Committee have all worked hard for
three years in order to accomplish this beta version.
Most members have chaired the work on a specific
chapter of the classification, assisted by a number of
other experts. For this edition, there has been a substantial
body of evidence available for the classification
work, in contrast to our previous editions, which
were mostly based on the opinions of experts. We
have tried to be conservative, making changes only
where there was good published evidence to support
change or where the need for change was intuitively
obvious.
This is the first time that we have published a beta
version ahead of the final version. The main reason is to
synchronize ICHD-3 with the World Health
Organization's next revision (11th edition) of the
International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11). This
classification is already well advanced, and we have not
only secured a very good representation of headache
within ICD-11 but also ensured congruence between
ICD-11 and ICHD-3 beta. However, ICD-11 now
enters a phase of field trials, and ICHD-3 should do
the same. Such a test period will allow identification
and correction of mistakes and enable a broad input
from the members of the International Headache
Society.
ICD-11 diagnostic codes will not be finalized until
two or three years from now, but it would be a major
advantage for ICHD-3 to be able to include these
codes along with our own. WHO's ICD-11 codes
will be used by health authorities for official diagnostic
coding, and in many cases they will be employed
for reimbursement purposes; we must have them
right.
We publish ICHD-3 beta immediately on the
International Headache Society's website, and shortly
after as an issue of Cephalalgia. Field-testing will continue
for 2 or maybe 3 years. Small amendments are
likely both to ICHD-3 and to the diagnostic codes of
ICD-11, and these will be incorporated. At that time,
we shall publish ICHD-3 in final form in Cephalalgia.
ICHD-3 beta is published only in English, but those
throughout the world who wish to make their own careful
translations of parts or in toto are welcome to do so
subject to the conditions stated above. The final version
of ICHD-3 should be translated into as many languages
as possible, and these translations published, as happened
to the second and first editions. As we expect
ICHD-3 beta to be very similar to the final version,
translation work begun now is likely to remain useful.
Any changes necessitated later by the outcomes of fieldtesting
can be made easily.
Clinicians and researchers should start using the criteria
of ICHD-3 beta. There are many improvements
over ICHD-II, and it would be unhelpful to continue to
use ICHD-II for scientific work. We encourage readers
to study ICHD-3 beta very closely, and document and
comment on any inconsistencies they may find.
Comments should be sent not to me but to the chairmen
of the relevant working groups. Their names and email
addresses are found in this publication and on the IHS
website.
Jes Olesen
Chairman
Headache Classification Committee
International Headache Society
ICHD-3 beta 633
How to use this classification
This extensive document is not intended to be learnt by
heart. Even members of the Classification Committee
are unable to remember all of it. It is a document that
should be consulted time and time again. In this way
you will soon get to know the diagnostic criteria for 1.1
Migraine without aura, 1.2 Migraine with aura, the
major subtypes of 2. Tension-type headache, 3.1
Cluster headache and a few others. The rest will
remain something to look up. In clinical practice you
do not need the classification for the obvious case of
migraine or tension-type headache, but it is useful when
the diagnosis is uncertain. For research, the classification
is indispensable and every patient entered into a
research project, be it a drug trial or a study of pathophysiology
or biochemistry, must fulfil a set of diagnostic
criteria.
1. This classification is hierarchical, and you must
decide how detailed you want to make your diagnosis.
This can range from the first-digit level to the
fifth. First, one gets a rough idea about which
group the patient belongs to. Is it, for example,
1. Migraine or 2. Tension-type headache or 3.
Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias? Then one
obtains information allowing a more detailed diagnosis.
The desired detail depends on the purpose. In
general practice only the first- or second-digit diagnoses
are usually applied, whereas in specialist
practice and headache centres a diagnosis at the
fourth- or fifth-digit level is appropriate.
2. For most purposes, patients receive a diagnosis
according to the headache phenotypes that they
currently present, or that they have presented
within the last year. For genetic and some other
uses, occurrence during the whole lifetime is used.
3. Each distinct type, subtype or subform of headache
that the patient has must be separately diagnosed
and coded. Thus, a severely affected patient in a
headache centre may receive three diagnoses and
codes: 1.1 Migraine without aura, 1.2 Migraine
with aura and 8.2 Medication-overuse headache.
4. When a patient receives more than one diagnosis,
these should be listed in the order of importance to
the patient.
5. When one type of headache in a particular patient
fulfils two different sets of diagnostic criteria, then
all other available information should be used to
decide which of the alternatives is the correct or
more likely diagnosis. This could include the
longitudinal headache history (how did the headache
start?), the family history, the effect of drugs,
menstrual relationship, age, gender and a range of
other features. Fulfilment of the diagnostic criteria
for 1. Migraine, 2. Tension-type headache or 3.
Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, or any of their
subtypes, always trumps fulfilment of criteria for
the probable diagnostic categories of each, which
are last-described in the respective groups. In
other words, a patient whose headache fulfils criteria
for both 1.5 Probable migraine and 2.1
Infrequent episodic tension-type headache should
be coded to the latter. Nevertheless, consideration
should always be given to the possibility that some
headache attacks meet one set of criteria, whereas
other attacks meet another set. In such cases, two
diagnoses exist and both should be coded.
6. To receive a particular headache diagnosis the
patient must, in many cases, experience a minimum
number of attacks of (or days with) that headache.
This number is specified in the diagnostic criteria
for the headache type, subtype or subform.
Further, the headache must fulfil a number of
other requirements described within the criteria
under separate letter headings: A, B, C etc. Some
letter headings are monothetic: that is, they express
a single requirement. Other letter headings are
polythetic, requiring for example any two out of
four listed characteristics.
7. The full set of diagnostic criteria is provided for
some headache disorders only at the first- and
second-digit levels. Diagnostic criteria at the
third- and fourth-digit levels then demand, as criterion
A, fulfilment of the criteria for levels one
and/or two and, in criterion B and onwards, specify
the further specific criteria to be fulfilled.
8. The frequency of primary headache disorders varies
from attacks every one to two years to attacks
daily. The severity of attacks also varies. ICHD-3
beta does not generally provide a possibility to code
for frequency or severity, but recommends that frequency
and severity be specified in free text.
9. Primary or secondary headache or both: When a
new headache occurs for the first time in close temporal
relation to another disorder that is known to
cause headache, or fulfils other criteria for causation
by that disorder, the new headache is coded as
a secondary headache attributed to the causative
disorder. This remains true even when the
634 Cephalalgia 33(9)
headache has the characteristics of a primary headache
(migraine, tension-type headache, cluster
headache or one of the other trigeminal autonomic
cephalalgias). When a pre-existing primary headache
becomes chronic in close temporal relation to
such a causative disorder, both the primary and the
secondary diagnoses should be given. When a preexisting
primary headache is made significantly
worse (usually meaning a two-fold or greater
increase in frequency and/or severity) in close temporal
relation to such a causative disorder, both the
primary and the secondary headache diagnoses
should be given, provided that there is good evidence
that the disorder can cause headache.
10. The last criterion for almost every headache disorder
is 'Not better accounted for by another ICHD-
3 diagnosis'. Consideration of other possible diagnoses
(the differential diagnosis) is a routine part of
the clinical diagnostic process. When a headache
appears to fulfil the criteria for a particular headache
disorder, this last criterion is a reminder
always to consider other diagnoses that might
better explain the headache.
In particular this applies to assessing whether headache
is secondary or primary. It may also apply to
alternative causative disorders: for example, headache
occurring in close temporal relation to acute
ischaemic stroke may be a consequence not of the
stroke but of the cause of the stroke (e.g. dissection).
11. Many patients with headache attacks fulfilling one
set of explicit diagnostic criteria also have attacks
that, although similar, do not quite satisfy the criteria.
This can be a result of treatment, inability to
recall symptoms exactly or other factors. Ask the
patient to describe a typical untreated or unsuccessfully
treated attack, and ascertain that there have
been enough of these to establish the diagnosis.
Then include the less-typical attacks when describing
attack frequency.
12. When a patient is suspected of having more than
one headache type or subtype, it is highly recommended
that he or she fill out a diagnostic headache
diary in which, for each headache episode, the
important characteristics are recorded. It has been
shown that such a headache diary improves diagnostic
accuracy as well as allowing a more precise
judgement of medication consumption. The diary
helps in judging the quantity of two or more different
headache types or subtypes. Finally, it teaches
the patient how to distinguish between different
headaches, for example between migraine without
aura and episodic tension-type headache.
13. In each chapter on secondary headaches, the
most well-known and well-established causes are
mentioned and criteria for these are given.
However, in many chapters, for example 9.
Headache attributed to infection, there are an
almost endless number of possible causes. In
order to avoid a very long list, only the most important
are mentioned. In the example, rarer causes are
assigned to 9.2.3 Headache attributed to other systemic
infection. The same system is used in the other
chapters on secondary headaches.
14. The diagnostic criteria for the secondary headaches
no longer require remission or substantial improvement
of the underlying causative disorder before
the headache diagnosis can be made. The diagnostic
criteria of ICHD-3 beta may be applied already
on presentation or as soon after as the underlying
disorder is confirmed. Criterion A is presence of the
headache; criterion B is presence of the causative
disorder; criterion C is the evidence of causation.
In acute conditions, a close temporal relation
between onset of headache and onset of the presumed
causative disorder is often sufficient to establish
causation, whereas less acute conditions usually
require more evidence of causation. In all cases, the
last criterion must be applied as a check: 'Not
better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis'.
15. In a few secondary headaches, 5.2 Persistent headache
attributed to traumatic head injury being a
good example, persistent headache subforms are
recognized to occur; that is, headache that was
caused initially by another disorder fails to remit
after that disorder has resolved. In such cases, the
diagnosis changes from the acute subform (e.g. 5.1
Acute headache attributed to traumatic head injury)
to the persistent subform (5.2 Persistent headache
attributed to traumatic head injury) after a specified
time interval (three months in this example).
Evidence of causation depends on earlier fulfilment
of the criteria for diagnosis of the acute subform,
and persistence of the same headache.
Most such diagnoses are in the Appendix
because of insufficient evidence for their existence.
They will not usually be applied, but are there
to stimulate research into better criteria for
causation.
16. The Appendix is for research. It helps clinical scientists
study orphan entities for later inclusion in (or,
in some cases, exclusion from) the main body of the
classification. Most diagnoses and diagnostic criteria
in the Appendix are either new or alternatives
to criteria in the main body. Some are old entities
not yet sufficiently validated; these are expected to
be deleted in the next revision of ICHD if evidence
is not produced.
International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 635
Classification
ICHD-3 code Diagnosis
1. Migraine
1.1 Migraine without aura
1.2 Migraine with aura
1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura
1.2.1.1 Typical aura with headache
1.2.1.2 Typical aura without headache
1.2.2 Migraine with brainstem aura
1.2.3 Hemiplegic migraine
1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM)
1.2.3.1.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine type 1 (FHM1)
1.2.3.1.2 Familial hemiplegic migraine type 2 (FHM2)
1.2.3.1.3 Familial hemiplegic migraine type 3 (FHM3)
1.2.3.1.4 Familial hemiplegic migraine, other loci
1.2.3.2 Sporadic hemiplegic migraine
1.2.4 Retinal migraine
1.3 Chronic migraine
1.4 Complications of migraine
1.4.1 Status migrainosus
1.4.2 Persistent aura without infarction
1.4.3 Migrainous infarction
1.4.4 Migraine aura-triggered seizure
1.5 Probable migraine
1.5.1 Probable migraine without aura
1.5.2 Probable migraine with aura
1.6 Episodic syndromes that may be associated with migraine
1.6.1 Recurrent gastrointestinal disturbance
1.6.1.1 Cyclical vomiting syndrome
1.6.1.2 Abdominal migraine
1.6.2 Benign paroxysmal vertigo
1.6.3 Benign paroxysmal torticollis
2. Tension-type headache (TTH)
2.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache
2.1.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache associated with pericranial tenderness
2.1.2 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache not associated with pericranial tenderness
2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache
2.2.1 Frequent episodic tension-type headache associated with pericranial tenderness
2.2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache not associated with pericranial tenderness
2.3 Chronic tension-type headache
2.3.1 Chronic tension-type headache associated with pericranial tenderness
2.3.2 Chronic tension-type headache not associated with pericranial tenderness
2.4 Probable tension-type headache
2.4.1 Probable infrequent episodic tension-type headache
2.4.2 Probable frequent episodic tension-type headache
2.4.3 Probable chronic tension-type headache
3. Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs)
3.1 Cluster headache
3.1.1 Episodic cluster headache
3.1.2 Chronic cluster headache
3.2 Paroxysmal hemicrania
3.2.1 Episodic paroxysmal hemicrania
3.2.2 Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania
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3.3 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks
3.3.1 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and
tearing (SUNCT)
3.3.1.1 Episodic SUNCT
3.3.1.2 Chronic SUNCT
3.3.2 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with cranial autonomic
symptoms (SUNA)
3.3.2.1 Episodic SUNA
3.3.2.2 Chronic SUNA
3.4 Hemicrania continua
3.5 Probable trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia
3.5.1 Probable cluster headache
3.5.2 Probable paroxysmal hemicrania
3.5.3 Probable short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks
3.5.4 Probable hemicrania continua
4. Other primary headache disorders
4.1 Primary cough headache
4.1.1 Probable primary cough headache
4.2 Primary exercise headache
4.2.1 Probable primary exercise headache
4.3 Primary headache associated with sexual activity
4.3.1 Probable primary headache associated with sexual activity
4.4 Primary thunderclap headache
4.5 Cold-stimulus headache
4.5.1 Headache attributed to external application of a cold stimulus
4.5.2 Headache attributed to ingestion or inhalation of a cold stimulus
4.5.3 Probable cold-stimulus headache
4.5.3.1 Headache probably attributed to external application of a cold stimulus
4.5.3.2 Headache probably attributed to ingestion or inhalation of a cold stimulus
4.6 External-pressure headache
4.6.1 External-compression headache
4.6.2 External-traction headache
4.6.3 Probable external-pressure headache
4.6.3.1 Probable external-compression headache
4.6.3.2 Probable external-traction headache
4.7 Primary stabbing headache
4.7.1 Probable primary stabbing headache
4.8 Nummular headache
4.8.1 Probable nummular headache
4.9 Hypnic headache
4.9.1 Probable hypnic headache
4.10 New daily persistent headache (NDPH)
4.10.1 Probable new daily persistent headache
5. Headache attributed to trauma or injury to the head and/or neck
5.1 Acute headache attributed to traumatic injury to the head
5.1.1 Acute headache attributed to moderate or severe traumatic injury to the head
5.1.2 Acute headache attributed to mild traumatic injury to the head
5.2 Persistent headache attributed to traumatic injury to the head
5.2.1 Persistent headache attributed to moderate or severe traumatic injury to the head
5.2.2 Persistent headache attributed to mild traumatic injury to the head
5.3 Acute headache attributed to whiplash
5.4 Persistent headache attributed to whiplash
5.5 Acute headache attributed to craniotomy
5.6 Persistent headache attributed to craniotomy
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6. Headache attributed to cranial or cervical vascular disorder
6.1 Headache attributed to ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack
6.1.1 Headache attributed to ischaemic stroke (cerebral infarction)
6.1.2 Headache attributed to transient ischaemic attack (TIA)
6.2 Headache attributed to non-traumatic intracranial haemorrhage
6.2.1 Headache attributed to non-traumatic intracerebral haemorrhage
6.2.2 Headache attributed to non-traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH)
6.2.3 Headache attributed to non-traumatic acute subdural haemorrhage (ASDH)
6.3 Headache attributed to unruptured vascular malformation
6.3.1 Headache attributed to unruptured saccular aneurysm
6.3.2 Headache attributed to arteriovenous malformation (AVM)
6.3.3 Headache attributed to dural arteriovenous fistula (DAVF)
6.3.4 Headache attributed to cavernous angioma
6.3.5 Headache attributed to encephalotrigeminal or leptomeningeal angiomatosis
(Sturge Weber syndrome)
6.4 Headache attributed to arteritis
6.4.1 Headache attributed to giant cell arteritis (GCA)
6.4.2 Headache attributed to primary angiitis of the central nervous system (PACNS)
6.4.3 Headache attributed to secondary angiitis of the central nervous system (SACNS)
6.5 Headache attributed to cervical carotid or vertebral artery disorder
6.5.1 Headache or facial or neck pain attributed to cervical carotid or vertebral artery
dissection
6.5.2 Post-endarterectomy headache
6.5.3 Headache attributed to carotid or vertebral angioplasty
6.6 Headache attributed to cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT)
6.7 Headache attributed to other acute intracranial arterial disorder
6.7.1 Headache attributed to an intracranial endovascular procedure
6.7.2 Angiography headache
6.7.3 Headache attributed to reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS)
6.7.3.1 Headache probably attributed to reversible cerebral vasoconstriction
syndrome (RCVS)
6.7.4 Headache attributed to intracranial arterial dissection
6.8 Headache attributed to genetic vasculopathy
6.8.1 Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy with Subcortical Infarcts and
Leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL)
6.8.2 Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-like episodes (MELAS)
6.8.3 Headache attributed to another genetic vasculopathy
6.9 Headache attributed to pituitary apoplexy
7. Headache attributed to non-vascular intracranial disorder
7.1 Headache attributed to increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure
7.1.1 Headache attributed to idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH)
7.1.2 Headache attributed to intracranial hypertension secondary to metabolic, toxic or
hormonal causes
7.1.3 Headache attributed to intracranial hypertension secondary to hydrocephalus
7.2 Headache attributed to low cerebrospinal fluid pressure
7.2.1 Post-dural puncture headache
7.2.2 CSF fistula headache
7.2.3 Headache attributed to spontaneous intracranial hypotension
7.3 Headache attributed to non-infectious inflammatory disease
7.3.1 Headache attributed to neurosarcoidosis
7.3.2 Headache attributed to aseptic (non-infectious) meningitis
7.3.3 Headache attributed to other non-infectious inflammatory disease
7.3.4 Headache attributed to lymphocytic hypophysitis
7.3.5 Syndrome of transient Headache and Neurological Deficits with cerebrospinal fluid
Lymphocytosis (HaNDL)
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7.4 Headache attributed to intracranial neoplasia
7.4.1 Headache attributed to intracranial neoplasm
7.4.1.1 Headache attributed to colloid cyst of the third ventricle
7.4.2 Headache attributed to carcinomatous meningitis
7.4.3 Headache attributed to hypothalamic or pituitary hyper- or hyposecretion
7.5 Headache attributed to intrathecal injection
7.6 Headache attributed to epileptic seizure
7.6.1 Hemicrania epileptica
7.6.2 Post-ictal headache
7.7 Headache attributed to Chiari malformation type I (CM1)
7.8 Headache attributed to other non-vascular intracranial disorder
8. Headache attributed to a substance or its withdrawal
8.1 Headache attributed to use of or exposure to a substance
8.1.1 Nitric oxide (NO) donor-induced headache
8.1.1.1 Immediate NO donor-induced headache
8.1.1.2 Delayed NO donor-induced headache
8.1.2 Phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor-induced headache
8.1.3 Carbon monoxide (CO)-induced headache
8.1.4 Alcohol-induced headache
8.1.4.1 Immediate alcohol-induced headache
8.1.4.2 Delayed alcohol-induced headache
8.1.5 Headache induced by food and/or additive
8.1.5.1 Monosodium glutamate (MSG)-induced headache
8.1.6 Cocaine-induced headache
8.1.7 Histamine-induced headache
8.1.7.1 Immediate histamine-induced headache
8.1.7.2 Delayed histamine-induced headache
8.1.8 Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-induced headache
8.1.8.1 Immediate CGRP-induced headache
8.1.8.2 Delayed CGRP-induced headache
8.1.9 Headache attributed to exogenous acute pressor agent
8.1.10 Headache attributed to occasional use of non-headache medication
8.1.11 Headache attributed to long-term use of non-headache medication
8.1.12 Headache attributed to exogenous hormone
8.1.13 Headache attributed to use of or exposure to other substance
8.2 Medication-overuse headache (MOH)
8.2.1 Ergotamine-overuse headache
8.2.2 Triptan-overuse headache
8.2.3 Simple analgesic-overuse headache
8.2.3.1 Paracetamol (acetaminophen)-overuse headache
8.2.3.2 Acetylsalicylic acid-overuse headache
8.2.3.3 Other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-overuse headache
8.2.4 Opioid-overuse headache
8.2.5 Combination-analgesic-overuse headache
8.2.6 Medication-overuse headache attributed to multiple drug classes not individually
overused
8.2.7 Medication-overuse headache attributed to unverified overuse of multiple drug classes
8.2.8 Medication-overuse headache attributed to other medication
8.3 Headache attributed to substance withdrawal
8.3.1 Caffeine-withdrawal headache
8.3.2 Opioid-withdrawal headache
8.3.3 Oestrogen-withdrawal headache
8.3.4 Headache attributed to withdrawal from chronic use of other substance
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9. Headache attributed to infection
9.1 Headache attributed to intracranial infection
9.1.1 Headache attributed to bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis
9.1.1.1 Acute headache attributed to bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis
9.1.1.2 Chronic headache attributed to bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis
9.1.1.3 Persistent headache attributed to past bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis
9.1.2 Headache attributed to viral meningitis or encephalitis
9.1.2.1 Headache attributed to viral meningitis
9.1.2.2 Headache attributed to viral encephalitis
9.1.3 Headache attributed to intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection
9.1.3.1 Acute headache attributed to intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection
9.1.3.2 Chronic headache attributed to intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection
9.1.4 Headache attributed to brain abscess
9.1.5 Headache attributed to subdural empyema
9.2 Headache attributed to systemic infection
9.2.1 Headache attributed to systemic bacterial infection
9.2.1.1 Acute headache attributed to systemic bacterial infection
9.2.1.2 Chronic headache attributed to systemic bacterial infection
9.2.2 Headache attributed to systemic viral infection
9.2.2.1 Acute headache attributed to systemic viral infection
9.2.2.2 Chronic headache attributed to systemic viral infection
9.2.3 Headache attributed to other systemic infection
9.2.3.1 Acute headache attributed to other systemic infection
9.2.3.2 Chronic headache attributed to other systemic infection
10. Headache attributed to disorder of homoeostasis
10.1 Headache attributed to hypoxia and/or hypercapnia
10.1.1 High-altitude headache
10.1.2 Headache attributed to aeroplane travel
10.1.3 Diving headache
10.1.4 Sleep apnoea headache
10.2 Dialysis headache
10.3 Headache attributed to arterial hypertension
10.3.1 Headache attributed to phaeochromocytoma
10.3.2 Headache attributed to hypertensive crisis without hypertensive encephalopathy
10.3.3 Headache attributed to hypertensive encephalopathy
10.3.4 Headache attributed to pre-eclampsia or eclampsia
10.3.5 Headache attributed to autonomic dysreflexia
10.4 Headache attributed to hypothyroidism
10.5 Headache attributed to fasting
10.6 Cardiac cephalalgia
10.7 Headache attributed to other disorder of homoeostasis
11. Headache or facial pain attributed to disorder of the cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses,
teeth, mouth or other facial or cervical structure
11.1 Headache attributed to disorder of cranial bone
11.2 Headache attributed to disorder of the neck
11.2.1 Cervicogenic headache
11.2.2 Headache attributed to retropharyngeal tendonitis
11.2.3 Headache attributed to craniocervical dystonia
11.3 Headache attributed to disorder of the eyes
11.3.1 Headache attributed to acute glaucoma
11.3.2 Headache attributed to refractive error
11.3.3 Headache attributed to heterophoria or heterotropia (latent or persistent squint)
11.3.4 Headache attributed to ocular inflammatory disorder
11.3.5 Headache attributed to trochleitis
11.4 Headache attributed to disorder of the ears
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11.5 Headache attributed to disorder of the nose or paranasal sinuses
11.5.1 Headache attributed to acute rhinosinusitis
11.5.2 Headache attributed to chronic or recurring rhinosinusitis
11.6 Headache attributed to disorder of the teeth or jaw
11.7 Headache attributed to temporomandibular disorder (TMD)
11.8 Head or facial pain attributed to inflammation of the stylohyoid ligament
11.9 Headache or facial pain attributed to other disorder of cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose,
sinuses, teeth, mouth or other facial or cervical structure
12. Headache attributed to psychiatric disorder
12.1 Headache attributed to somatization disorder
12.2 Headache attributed to psychotic disorder
13. Painful cranial neuropathies and other facial pains
13.1 Trigeminal neuralgia
13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia
13.1.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia, purely paroxysmal
13.1.1.2 Classical trigeminal neuralgia with concomitant persistent facial pain
13.1.2 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
13.1.2.1 Painful trigeminal neuropathy attributed to acute Herpes zoster
13.1.2.2 Post-herpetic trigeminal neuropathy
13.1.2.3 Painful post-traumatic trigeminal neuropathy
13.1.2.4 Painful trigeminal neuropathy attributed to multiple sclerosis (MS) plaque
13.1.2.5 Painful trigeminal neuropathy attributed to space-occupying lesion
13.1.2.6 Painful trigeminal neuropathy attributed to other disorder
13.2 Glossopharyngeal neuralgia
13.3 Nervus intermedius (facial nerve) neuralgia
13.3.1 Classical nervus intermedius neuralgia
13.3.2 Nervus intermedius neuropathy attributed to Herpes zoster
13.4 Occipital neuralgia
13.5 Optic neuritis
13.6 Headache attributed to ischaemic ocular motor nerve palsy
13.7 Tolosa-Hunt syndrome
13.8 Paratrigeminal oculosympathetic (Raeder's) syndrome
13.9 Recurrent painful ophthalmoplegic neuropathy
13.10 Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)
13.11 Persistent idiopathic facial pain (PIFP)
13.12 Central neuropathic pain
13.12.1 Central neuropathic pain attributed to multiple sclerosis (MS)
13.12.2 Central post-stroke pain (CPSP)
14. Other headache disorders
14.1 Headache not elsewhere classified
14.2 Headache unspecified
A. Appendix
A1. Migraine
A1.1 Migraine without aura
A1.1.1 Pure menstrual migraine without aura
A1.1.2 Menstrually related migraine without aura
A1.1.3 Non-menstrual migraine without aura
A1.2 Migraine with aura (alternative criteria)
A1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura (alternative criteria)
A1.3 Chronic migraine (alternative criteria)
A1.3.1 Chronic migraine with pain-free periods
A1.3.2 Chronic migraine with continuous pain
A1.4 Complications of migraine
A1.4.5 Migraine aura status
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A1.6 Episodic syndromes that may be associated with migraine
A1.6.4 Infantile colic
A1.6.5 Alternating hemiplegia of childhood
A1.6.6 Vestibular migraine
A2. Tension-type headache (alternative criteria)
A3. Trigeminal-autonomic cephalalgias (TACs)
A3.6 Undifferentiated trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia
A4. Other primary headache disorders
A4.11 Epicrania fugax
A5. Headache attributed to trauma or injury to the head and/or neck
A5.1 Acute headache attributed to traumatic injury to the head
A5.1.1.1 Delayed-onset acute headache attributed to moderate or severe traumatic injury to the head
A5.1.2.1 Delayed-onset acute headache attributed to mild traumatic injury to the head
A5.2 Persistent headache attributed to traumatic injury to the head
A5.2.1.1 Delayed-onset persistent headache attributed to moderate or severe traumatic injury to
the head
A5.2.2.1 Delayed-onset persistent headache attributed to mild traumatic injury to the head
A5.7 Headache attributed to radiosurgery of the brain
A5.8 Acute headache attributed to other trauma or injury to the head and/or neck
A5.9 Persistent headache attributed to other trauma or injury to the head and/or neck
A6. Headache attributed to cranial or cervical vascular disorder
A6.10 Persistent headache attributed to past cranial or cervical vascular disorder
A7. Headache attributed to non-vascular intracranial disorder
A7.6 Headache attributed to epileptic seizure
A7.6.3 Post-electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) headache
A7.9 Persistent headache attributed to past non-vascular intracranial disorder
A8. Headache attributed to a substance or its withdrawal
A8.4 Persistent headache attributed to past use of or exposure to a substance
A9. Headache attributed to infection
A9.1 Headache attributed to intracranial infection
A9.1.3.3 Persistent headache attributed to past intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection
A9.1.6 Headache attributed to other infective space-occupying lesion
A9.3 Headache attributed to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection
A10. Headache attributed to disorder of homoeostasis
A10.7 Head and/or neck pain attributed to orthostatic (postural) hypotension
A10.8 Headache attributed to other disorder of homeostasis
A10.8.1 Headache attributed to travel in space
A10.8.2 Headache attributed to other metabolic or systemic disorder
A10.9 Persistent headache attributed to past disorder of homoeostasis
A11. Headache or facial pain attributed to disorder of the cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses,
teeth, mouth or other facial or cervical structure
A11.2 Headache attributed to disorder of the neck
A11.2.4 Headache attributed to upper cervical radiculopathy
A11.2.5 Headache attributed to cervical myofascial pain
A11.5 Headache attributed to disorder of the nose or paranasal sinuses
A11.5.3 Headache attributed to disorder of the nasal mucosa, turbinates or septum
A12. Headache attributed to psychiatric disorder
A12.3 Headache attributed to depressive disorder
A12.4 Headache attributed to separation anxiety disorder
A12.5 Headache attributed to panic disorder
A12.6 Headache attributed to specific phobia
A12.7 Headache attributed to social anxiety disorder (social phobia)
A12.8 Headache attributed to generalized anxiety disorder
A12.9 Headache attributed to post-traumatic stress disorder
A12.10 Headache attributed to acute stress disorder
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Part one
The primary headaches
1. Migraine
2. Tension-type headache
3. Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias
4. Other primary headache disorders
ICHD-3 beta 643
1. Migraine
1.1 Migraine without aura
1.2 Migraine with aura
1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura
1.2.1.1 Typical aura with headache
1.2.1.2 Typical aura without headache
1.2.2 Migraine with brainstem aura
1.2.3 Hemiplegic migraine
1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM)
1.2.3.1.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine type 1
1.2.3.1.2 Familial hemiplegic migraine type 2
1.2.3.1.3 Familial hemiplegic migraine type 3
1.2.3.1.4 Familial hemiplegic migraine, other
loci
1.2.3.2 Sporadic hemiplegic migraine
1.2.4 Retinal migraine
1.3 Chronic migraine
1.4 Complications of migraine
1.4.1 Status migrainosus
1.4.2 Persistent aura without infarction
1.4.3 Migrainous infarction
1.4.4 Migraine aura-triggered seizure
1.5 Probable migraine
1.5.1 Probable migraine without aura
1.5.2 Probable migraine with aura
1.6 Episodic syndromes that may be associated with
migraine
1.6.1 Recurrent gastrointestinal disturbance
1.6.1.1 Cyclical vomiting syndrome
1.6.1.2 Abdominal migraine
1.6.2 Benign paroxysmal vertigo
1.6.3 Benign paroxysmal torticollis
Coded elsewhere:
Migraine-like headache secondary to another disorder
(symptomatic migraine) is coded as a secondary headache
attributed to that disorder.
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a new headache with the characteristics of
migraine occurs for the first time in close temporal
relation to another disorder known to cause headache,
or fulfils other criteria for causation by that disorder,
the new headache is coded as a secondary headache
attributed to the causative disorder. When pre-existing
migraine becomes chronic in close temporal relation to
such a causative disorder, both the initial migraine
diagnosis and the secondary diagnosis should be
given. 8.2 Medication-overuse headache is a particularly
important example of this: both the episodic or
chronic migraine diagnosis and the diagnosis 8.2
Medication-overuse headache should be given when
medication overuse is present. When pre-existing
migraine is made significantly worse (usually meaning
a two-fold or greater increase in frequency and/or
severity) in close temporal relation to such a causative
disorder, both the initial migraine diagnosis and the
secondary headache diagnosis should be given, provided
that there is good evidence that the disorder
can cause headache.
Introduction
Migraine is a common disabling primary headache
disorder. Epidemiological studies have documented
its high prevalence and high socio-economic and personal
impacts. In the Global Burden of Disease Survey
2010, it was ranked as the third most prevalent disorder
and seventh-highest specific cause of disability
worldwide.
Migraine has two major subtypes. 1.1 Migraine
without aura is a clinical syndrome characterized
by headache with specific features and associated
symptoms. 1.2 Migraine with aura is primarily characterized
by the transient focal neurological symptoms
that usually precede or sometimes accompany the
headache. Some patients also experience a premonitory
phase, occurring hours or days before the headache,
and a headache resolution phase. Premonitory
and resolution symptoms include hyperactivity,
hypoactivity, depression, cravings for particular
foods, repetitive yawning, fatigue and neck stiffness
and/or pain.
When a patient fulfils criteria for more than one
subtype of migraine, all subtypes should be diagnosed
and coded. For example, a patient who has frequent
attacks with aura but also some attacks without aura
should be coded as 1.2 Migraine with aura and 1.1
Migraine without aura. Attacks of either type are
included in the diagnostic criteria for 1.3 Chronic
migraine.
1.1 Migraine without aura
Previously used terms:
Common migraine; hemicrania simplex.
Description:
Recurrent headache disorder manifesting in attacks
lasting 4-72 hours. Typical characteristics of the headache
are unilateral location, pulsating quality, moderate
or severe intensity, aggravation by routine physical
activity and association with nausea and/or photophobia
and phonophobia.
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Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least five attacks1 fulfilling criteria B–D
B. Headache attacks lasting 4-72 hours (untreated or
unsuccessfully treated)2,3
C. Headache has at least two of the following four
characteristics:
1. unilateral location
2. pulsating quality
3. moderate or severe pain intensity
4. aggravation by or causing avoidance of
routine physical activity (e.g. walking or climbing
stairs)
D. During headache at least one of the following:
1. nausea and/or vomiting
2. photophobia and phonophobia
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Notes:
1. One or a few migraine attacks may be difficult to
distinguish from symptomatic migraine-like
attacks. Furthermore, the nature of a single or a
few attacks may be difficult to understand.
Therefore, at least five attacks are required.
Individuals who otherwise meet criteria for 1.1
Migraine without aura but have had fewer than
five attacks, should be coded 1.5.1 Probable
migraine without aura.
2. When the patient falls asleep during a migraine
attack and wakes up without it, duration of the
attack is reckoned until the time of awakening.
3. In children and adolescents (aged under 18 years),
attacks may last 2-72 hours (the evidence for
untreated durations of less than 2 hours in children
has not been substantiated).
Comments:
Migraine headache in children and adolescents (aged
under 18 years) is more often bilateral than is the case
in adults; unilateral pain usually emerges in late adolescence
or early adult life. Migraine headache is usually
frontotemporal. Occipital headache in children is rare
and calls for diagnostic caution. A subset of otherwise
typical patients have facial location of pain, which is
called 'facial migraine' in the literature; there is no evidence
that these patients form a separate subgroup of
migraine patients. In young children, photophobia and
phonophobia may be inferred from their behaviour.
Migraine attacks can be associated with cranial autonomic
symptoms and symptoms of cutaneous allodynia.
Migraine without aura often has a menstrual relationship.
ICHD-3 beta offers criteria for A1.1.1 Pure
menstrual migraine and A1.1.2 Menstrually related
migraine, but in the Appendix because of uncertainty
over whether they should be regarded as separate
entities.
Very frequent migraine attacks are now distinguished
as 1.3 Chronic migraine. When there is associated
medication overuse, both diagnoses, 1.3
Chronic migraine and 8.2 Medication-overuse headache,
should be applied. 1.1 Migraine without aura is the disease
most prone to accelerate with frequent use of
symptomatic medication.
Regional cerebral blood flow imaging shows no
changes suggestive of cortical spreading depression
(CSD) during attacks of migraine without aura,
although blood flow changes may occur in the brainstem,
as may cortical changes secondary to pain activation.
This contrasts with the pathognomonic spreading
oligaemia of migraine with aura. Although the bulk of
the literature suggests that CSD does not occur in
migraine without aura, some recent studies disagree.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that glial waves or
other cortical phenomena may be involved in migraine
without aura. The messenger molecules nitric oxide
(NO), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and calcitonin
gene-related peptide (CGRP) are involved. Although
the disease was previously regarded as primarily vascular,
the importance of sensitization of pain pathways,
and the possibility that attacks may originate in the
central nervous system, have gained increasing attention
over recent decades. At the same time, the circuitry
of migraine pain, the trigeminovascular system, and
several aspects of its neurotransmission peripherally
and in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis, the central
mesencephalic grey and the thalamus, have been recognized.
New highly receptor-specific acute medications
such as the triptans, which are 5HT1B/D receptor agonists,
5-HT1F receptor agonists and CGRP receptor
antagonists have demonstrated efficacy in the acute
treatment of attacks. Because of their high receptorspecificity,
their mechanism of action provides new
insight into migraine mechanisms. It is now clear that
migraine without aura is a neurobiological disorder;
clinical as well as basic neuroscience has advanced
our knowledge of migraine mechanisms, and continues
to do so.
1.2 Migraine with aura
Previously used terms:
Classic or classical migraine; ophthalmic, hemiparaesthetic,
hemiplegic or aphasic migraine; migraine accompagne
´ e; complicated migraine.
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Description:
Recurrent attacks, lasting minutes, of unilateral fully
reversible visual, sensory or other central nervous
system symptoms that usually develop gradually and
are usually followed by headache and associated
migraine symptoms.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two attacks fulfilling criteria B and C
B. One or more of the following fully reversible aura
symptoms:
1. visual
2. sensory
3. speech and/or language
4. motor
5. brainstem
6. retinal
C. At least two of the following four characteristics:
1. at least one aura symptom spreads gradually
over 5 minutes, and/or two or more symptoms
occur in succession
2. each individual aura symptom lasts 5-60 minutes1
3. at least one aura symptom is unilateral2
4. the aura is accompanied, or followed within 60
minutes, by headache
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and transient ischaemic attack has been
excluded.
Notes:
1. When, for example, three symptoms occur during
an aura, the acceptable maximal duration is 3 60
minutes. Motor symptoms may last up to 72 hours.
2. Aphasia is always regarded as a unilateral symptom;
dysarthria may or may not be.
Comments:
The aura is the complex of neurological symptoms that
occurs usually before the headache of 1.2 Migraine with
aura, but it may begin after the pain phase has commenced,
or continue into the headache phase.
Visual aura is the most common type of aura, occurring
in over 90% of patients with 1.2 Migraine with
aura, at least in some attacks. It often presents as a
fortification spectrum: a zigzag figure near the point
of fixation that may gradually spread right or left and
assume a laterally convex shape with an angulated scintillating
edge, leaving absolute or variable degrees of
relative scotoma in its wake. In other cases, scotoma
without positive phenomena may occur; this is often
perceived as being of acute onset but, on scrutiny,
usually enlarges gradually. In children and adolescents,
less typical bilateral visual symptoms occur that may
represent an aura. A visual aura rating scale with high
specificity and sensitivity has been developed and
validated.
Next in frequency are sensory disturbances, in the
form of pins and needles moving slowly from the point
of origin and affecting a greater or smaller part of one
side of the body, face and/or tongue. Numbness may
occur in its wake, but numbness may also be the only
symptom.
Less frequent are speech disturbances, usually aphasic
but often hard to categorize.
When the aura includes motor weakness, the disorder
should be coded as 1.2.3 Hemiplegic migraine or
one of its subforms.
Aura symptoms of these different types usually
follow one another in succession, beginning with
visual, then sensory, then aphasic; but the reverse and
other orders have been noted. The accepted duration
for most aura symptoms is 1 hour, but motor symptoms
are often longer lasting.
Patients often find it hard to describe their aura
symptoms, in which case they should be instructed to
time and record them prospectively. The clinical picture
then becomes clearer. Common mistakes are incorrect
reports of lateralization, of sudden rather than gradual
onset and of monocular rather than homonymous
visual disturbances, as well as of duration of aura and
mistaking sensory loss for weakness. After an initial
consultation, use of an aura diary may clarify the
diagnosis.
Many patients who have migraine attacks with aura
also have attacks without aura; they should be coded as
both 1.2 Migraine with aura and 1.1 Migraine without
aura.
Premonitory symptoms may begin hours or a day or
two before the other symptoms of a migraine attack
(with or without aura). They include various combinations
of fatigue, difficulty in concentrating, neck stiffness,
sensitivity to light and/or sound, nausea, blurred
vision, yawning and pallor. The terms 'prodrome' and
'warning symptoms' are best avoided, because they are
often mistakenly used to include aura.
Migraine aura is sometimes associated with a headache
that does not fulfil criteria for 1.1 Migraine without
aura, but this is still regarded as a migraine headache
because of its relation to the aura. In other cases,
migraine aura may occur without headache.
Before or simultaneously with the onset of aura
symptoms, regional cerebral blood flow is decreased
in the cortex corresponding to the clinically affected
area and often over a wider area. Blood flow reduction
usually starts posteriorly and spreads anteriorly, and is
usually above the ischaemic threshold. After 1 to
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several hours, gradual transition into hyperaemia
occurs in the same region. Cortical spreading depression
of Lea˜o is the likely underlying mechanism.
Systematic studies have demonstrated that many
patients with visual aura occasionally have symptoms
in the extremities and/or speech symptoms. Conversely,
patients with symptoms in the extremities and/or speech
or language symptoms almost always also experience
visual aura symptoms at least during some attacks. A
distinction between migraine with visual aura, migraine
with hemiparaesthetic aura and migraine with speech
and/or language aura is probably artificial, and therefore
is not recognized in this classification. They are all
coded as 1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura. Patients with
aura symptoms arising from the brainstem are coded as
1.2.2 Migraine with brainstem aura, but they almost
always have additional typical aura symptoms.
Patients with 1.2.3 Hemiplegic migraine have motor
weakness, and this is classified as a separate subform
because of genetic and pathophysiological differences
from migraine with typical aura. Such patients often
have brainstem symptoms in addition.
The previously defined syndromes, migraine with
prolonged aura and migraine with acute-onset aura,
have been abandoned. The great majority of patients
with such attacks have other attacks that fulfil criteria
for one of the recognized subforms of 1.2 Migraine with
aura, and should be coded to that diagnosis. The rest
should be coded to 1.5.2 Probable migraine with aura,
specifying the atypical feature (prolonged aura or acute
onset aura) in parenthesis. The diagnosis is usually evident
after a careful history alone, although there are
rare secondary mimics including carotid dissection,
arteriovenous malformation and seizure.
1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura
Description:
Migraine with aura in which aura consists of visual
and/or sensory and/or speech/language symptoms,
but no motor weakness, and is characterized by gradual
development, duration of each symptom no longer than
1 hour, a mix of positive and negative features and
complete reversibility.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two attacks fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Aura consisting of visual, sensory and/or speech/
language symptoms, each fully reversible, but no
motor, brainstem or retinal symptoms
C. At least two of the following four characteristics:
1. at least one aura symptom spreads gradually
over 5 minutes, and/or two or more symptoms
occur in succession
2. each individual aura symptom lasts 5-60
minutes1
3. at least one aura symptom is unilateral2
4. the aura is accompanied, or followed within 60
minutes, by headache
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and transient ischaemic attack has been
excluded.
Notes:
1. When for example three symptoms occur during an
aura, the acceptable maximal duration is 3 60
minutes.
2. Aphasia is always regarded as a unilateral symptom;
dysarthria may or may not be.
1.2.1.1 Typical aura with headache
Description:
Migraine with typical aura in which aura is accompanied
or followed within 60 minutes by headache with or
without migraine characteristics.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Fulfils criteria for 1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura
B. Headache, with or without migraine characteristics,
accompanies or follows the aura within 60 minutes.
1.2.1.2 Typical aura without headache
Description:
Migraine with typical aura in which aura is neither
accompanied nor followed by headache of any sort.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Fulfils criteria for 1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura
B. No headache accompanies or follows the aura
within 60 minutes.
Comments:
In some patients, a typical aura is always followed by
migraine headache, but many patients have, in addition,
attacks with aura followed by a less distinct headache
or even without headache. A number of patients
have, exclusively, 1.2.1.2 Typical aura without headache.
In the absence of headache fulfilling criteria for 1.1
Migraine without aura, the precise diagnosis of aura and
its distinction from mimics that may signal serious
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disease (e.g. transient ischaemic attack) becomes
more difficult and often requires investigation.
When aura occurs for the first time after age 40,
when symptoms are exclusively negative (e.g. hemianopia)
or when aura is prolonged or very short, other
causes, particularly transient ischaemic attacks,
should be ruled out.
1.2.2 Migraine with brainstem aura
Previously used terms:
Basilar artery migraine; basilar migraine; basilar-type
migraine.
Description:
Migraine with aura symptoms clearly originating from
the brainstem, but no motor weakness.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two attacks fulfilling criteria B-D
B. Aura consisting of visual, sensory and/or speech/
language symptoms, each fully reversible, but no
motor1 or retinal symptoms
C. At least two of the following brainstem symptoms:
1. dysarthria
2. vertigo
3. tinnitus
4. hypacusis
5. diplopia
6. ataxia
7. decreased level of consciousness
D. At least two of the following four characteristics:
1. at least one aura symptom spreads gradually
over 5 minutes, and/or two or more symptoms
occur in succession
2. each individual aura symptom lasts 5-60
minutes2
3. at least one aura symptom is unilateral3
4. the aura is accompanied, or followed within 60
minutes, by headache
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and transient ischaemic attack has been
excluded.
Notes:
1. When motor symptoms are present, code as 1.2.3
Hemiplegic migraine.
2. When for example three symptoms occur during an
aura, the acceptable maximal duration is 3 60
minutes.
3. Aphasia is always regarded as a unilateral symptom;
dysarthria may or may not be.
Comments:
Originally the terms basilar artery migraine or basilar
migraine were used but, as involvement of the basilar
artery is unlikely, the term migraine with brainstem aura
is preferred.
There are typical aura symptoms in addition to the
brainstem symptoms during most attacks. Many
patients who have attacks with brainstem aura also
report other attacks with typical aura and should be
coded for both 1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura and
1.2.2 Migraine with brainstem aura.
Many of the symptoms listed under criterion C may
occur with anxiety and hyperventilation, and therefore
are subject to misinterpretation.
1.2.3 Hemiplegic1 migraine
Description:
Migraine with aura including motor weakness.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two attacks fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Aura consisting of both of the following:
1. fully reversible motor weakness
2. fully reversible visual, sensory and/or speech/
language symptoms
C. At least two of the following four characteristics:
1. at least one aura symptom spreads gradually
over 5 minutes, and/or two or more symptoms
occur in succession
2. each individual non-motor aura symptom lasts
5–60 minutes, and motor symptoms last <72
hours2
3. at least one aura symptom is unilateral3
4. the aura is accompanied, or followed within 60
minutes, by headache
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and transient ischaemic attack and stroke
have been excluded.
Notes:
1. The term plegic means paralysis in most languages,
but most attacks are characterized by motor
weakness.
2. In some patients, motor weakness may last weeks.
3. Aphasia is always regarded as a unilateral symptom;
dysarthria may or may not be.
Comment:
It may be difficult to distinguish weakness from sensory
loss.
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1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM)
Description:
Migraine with aura including motor weakness, and at
least one first- or second-degree relative has migraine
aura including motor weakness.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Fulfils criteria for 1.2.3 Hemiplegic migraine
B. At least one first- or second-degree relative has had
attacks fulfilling criteria for 1.2.3 Hemiplegic
migraine.
Comments:
New genetic data have allowed a more precise definition
of 1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM)
than was possible previously. Specific genetic subtypes
have been identified: in FHM1 there are mutations in
the CACNA1A gene (coding for a calcium channel)
on chromosome 19; in FHM2 there are mutations in
the ATP1A2 gene (coding for a K/Na-ATPase) on
chromosome 1; and in FHM3 there are mutations
in the SCN1A gene (coding for a sodium channel)
on chromosome 2. There may be other loci not yet
identified. When genetic testing is done, the genetic
subtype (if discovered) should be specified at the
fifth digit.
It has been shown that 1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic
migraine (FHM) very often presents with brainstem
symptoms in addition to the typical aura symptoms,
and that headache almost always occurs. Rarely,
during FHM attacks, disturbances of consciousness
(sometimes including coma), confusion, fever and
CSF pleocytosis can occur.
1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) may be
mistaken for epilepsy and (unsuccessfully) treated as
such. FHM attacks can be triggered by (mild) head
trauma. In approximately 50% of FHM families,
chronic progressive cerebellar ataxia occurs independently
of the migraine attacks.
1.2.3.1.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine type 1 (FHM1)
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Fulfils criteria for 1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic
migraine
B. A causative mutation on the CACNA1A gene has
been demonstrated.
1.2.3.1.2 Familial hemiplegic migraine type 2 (FHM2)
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Fulfils criteria for 1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic
migraine
B. A causative mutation on the ATP1A2 gene has been
demonstrated.
1.2.3.1.3 Familial hemiplegic migraine type 3 (FHM3)
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Fulfils criteria for 1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic
migraine
B. A causative mutation on the SCN1A gene has been
demonstrated.
1.2.3.1.4 Familial hemiplegic migraine, other loci
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Fulfils criteria for 1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine
B. Genetic testing has demonstrated no mutation on
the CACNA1A, ATP1A2 or SCN1A genes.
1.2.3.2 Sporadic hemiplegic migraine
Description:
Migraine with aura including motor weakness, and no
first- or second-degree relative has migraine aura
including motor weakness.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Fulfils criteria for 1.2.3 Hemiplegic migraine
B. No first- or second-degree relative fulfils criteria for
1.2.3 Hemiplegic migraine.
Comments:
Epidemiological studies have shown that sporadic cases
occur with approximately the same prevalence as familial
cases.
The attacks in 1.2.3.2 Sporadic hemiplegic migraine
have the same clinical characteristics as those in 1.2.3.1
Familial hemiplegic migraine. Some apparently sporadic
cases have known FHM mutations, and in some a firstor
second-degree relative later develops hemiplegic
migraine, thus completing fulfilment of the criteria for
1.2.3.1 Familial hemiplegic migraine and requiring a
change of diagnosis.
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Sporadic cases usually require neuroimaging and
other tests to rule out other causes. A lumbar puncture
may be necessary to rule out 7.3.5 Syndrome of transient
Headache and Neurological Deficits with cerebrospinal
fluid Lymphocytosis (HaNDL).
1.2.4 Retinal migraine
Description:
Repeated attacks of monocular visual disturbance,
including scintillations, scotomata or blindness, associated
with migraine headache.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two attacks fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Aura consisting of fully reversible monocular positive
and/or negative visual phenomena (e.g. scintillations,
scotomata or blindness) confirmed during
an attack by either or both of the following:
1. clinical visual field examination
2. the patient's drawing (made after clear instruction)
of a monocular field defect
C. At least two of the following three characteristics
1. the aura spreads gradually over 5 minutes
2. aura symptoms last 5-60 minutes
3. the aura is accompanied, or followed within 60
minutes, by headache
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and other causes of amaurosis fugax have
been excluded.
Comments:
Some patients who complain of monocular visual disturbance
in fact have hemianopia. Some cases without
headache have been reported, but migraine cannot be
ascertained as the underlying aetiology.
1.2.4 Retinal migraine is an extremely rare cause of
transient monocular visual loss. Cases of permanent
monocular visual loss associated with migraine have
been described. Appropriate investigations are required
to exclude other causes of transient monocular
blindness.
1.3 Chronic migraine1,2
Description:
Headache occurring on 15 or more days per month for
more than 3 months, which has the features of migraine
headache on at least 8 days per month.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache (tension-type-like and/or migraine-like)
on 15 days per month for >3 months2 and fulfilling
criteria B and C
B. Occurring in a patient who has had at least five
attacks fulfilling criteria B-D for 1.1 Migraine without
aura and/or criteria B and C for 1.2 Migraine
with aura
C. On 8 days per month for >3 months, fulfilling any
of the following3:
1. criteria C and D for 1.1 Migraine without aura
2. criteria B and C for 1.2 Migraine with aura
3. believed by the patient to be migraine at onset
and relieved by a triptan or ergot derivative
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Notes:
1. The diagnosis of 1.3 Chronic migraine excludes the
diagnosis of 2. Tension-type headache or its subtypes
because tension-type-like headache is within
the diagnostic criteria for 1.3 Chronic migraine.
2. The reason for singling out chronic from episodic
migraine is that it is impossible to distinguish the
individual episodes of headache in patients with
such frequent or continuous headaches. In fact,
the characteristics of the headache may change
not only from day to day but even within the
same day. It is extremely difficult to keep such
patients medication-free in order to observe the
natural history of the headache. In this situation,
attacks with or without aura are both counted, as
well as tension-type-like headaches. The most
common cause of symptoms suggestive of chronic
migraine is medication overuse, as defined under
8.2 Medication-overuse headache. Around 50% of
patients apparently with 1.3 Chronic migraine
revert to an episodic migraine subtype after drug
withdrawal; such patients are in a sense wrongly
diagnosed as 1.3 Chronic migraine. Equally, many
patients apparently overusing medication do not
improve after drug withdrawal, and the diagnosis
of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache may in a sense
be inappropriate (assuming that chronicity induced
by drug overuse is always reversible). For these
reasons, and because of the general rule, patients
meeting criteria for 1.3 Chronic migraine and for 8.2
Medication-overuse headache should be given both
diagnoses. After drug withdrawal, migraine will
either revert to the episodic subtype or remain
chronic, and be re-diagnosed accordingly; in the
latter case, the diagnosis of 8.2 Medication-overuse
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headache may be rescinded. In some countries, it is
usual practice to diagnose 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache only on discharge.
3. Characterization of frequently recurring headache
generally requires a headache diary to record information
on pain and associated symptoms day-byday
for at least 1 month. Sample diaries are available
at http://www.i-h-s.org.
1.4 Complications of migraine
Comment:
Code separately for both the migraine subtype and for
the complication.
1.4.1 Status migrainosus
Description:
A debilitating migraine attack lasting for more than 72
hours.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. A headache attack fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Occurring in a patient with 1.1 Migraine
without aura and/or 1.2 Migraine with aura, and
typical of previous attacks except for its duration
and severity
C. Both of the following characteristics:
1. unremitting for >72 hours1
2. pain and/or associated symptoms are
debilitating2
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Notes:
1. Remissions of up to 12 hours because of medication
or sleep are accepted.
2. Milder cases, not meeting criterion C2, are coded
1.5.1 Probable migraine without aura.
Comments:
Headache with the features of 1.4.1 Status migrainosus
may often be caused by medication overuse.
When headache in these circumstances meets the criteria
for 8.2 Medication-overuse headache, code for
1.3 Chronic migraine and 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache but not for 1.4.1 Status migrainosus. When
overuse of medication is of shorter duration than
3 months, code for the appropriate migraine subtype(
s) only.
1.4.2 Persistent aura without infarction
Description:
Aura symptoms persisting for 1 week or more without
evidence of infarction on neuroimaging.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Aura fulfilling criterion B
B. Occurring in a patient with 1.2 Migraine
with aura and typical of previous auras except
that one or more aura symptoms persists for 1
week
C. Neuroimaging shows no evidence of infarction
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Persistent aura symptoms are rare but well documented.
They are often bilateral and may last for months
or years. The 1-week minimum in criterion B is based
on the opinion of experts and should be formally
studied.
Diagnostic work-up must distinguish 1.4.2 Persistent
aura without infarction from 1.4.3 Migrainous infarction,
and exclude symptomatic aura as a result
of cerebral infarction of other causes. Attacks
lasting more than 1 hour and less than 1 week
and not fulfilling criteria for 1.2.1 Migraine with
typical aura are coded 1.5.2 Probable migraine with
aura.
1.4.3 Migrainous infarction
Description:
One or more migraine aura symptoms associated with
an ischaemic brain lesion in the appropriate territory
demonstrated by neuroimaging.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. A migraine attack fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Occurring in a patient with 1.2 Migraine with aura
and typical of previous attacks except that one or
more aura symptoms persists for >60 minutes
C. Neuroimaging demonstrates ischaemic infarction in
a relevant area
D. Not better accounted for by another diagnosis.
Comments:
Ischaemic stroke in a migraine sufferer may be categorized
as cerebral infarction of other cause coexisting with
migraine, cerebral infarction of other cause presenting
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with symptoms resembling migraine with aura, or cerebral
infarction occurring during the course of a typical
migraine with aura attack. Only the last fulfils criteria
for 1.4.3 Migrainous infarction.
1.4.3 Migrainous infarction mostly occurs in the posterior
circulation and in younger women
A two-fold increased risk of ischaemic stroke in
patients with migraine with aura patients has been
demonstrated in several population-based studies.
However, it should be noted that these infarctions
are not migrainous infarctions. The mechanisms of
the increased risk of ischaemic stroke in migraine
sufferers remain unclear; likewise, the relationship
between frequency of aura and the nature of
aura symptoms denoting the increase in risk is
unknown. Most studies have shown a lack of association
between migraine without aura and ischaemic
stroke.
1.4.4 Migraine aura-triggered seizure
Description:
A seizure triggered by an attack of migraine with aura.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. A seizure fulfilling diagnostic criteria for one type of
epileptic attack, and criterion B below
B. Occurring in a patient with 1.2 Migraine with aura,
and during, or within 1 hour after, an attack of
migraine with aura
C. Not better accounted for by another diagnosis.
Comment:
Migraine and epilepsy are prototypical examples of
paroxysmal brain disorders. Although migraine-like
headaches are quite frequently seen in the epileptic
postictal period, sometimes a seizure occurs during or
following a migraine attack. This phenomenon, sometimes
referred to as migralepsy, is a rare event, originally
described in patients with 1.2 Migraine with aura.
Evidence for association with 1.1 Migraine without aura
is still lacking.
1.5 Probable migraine
Previously used term:
Migrainous disorder.
Coded elsewhere:
Migraine-like headache secondary to another disorder
(symptomatic migraine) is coded according to that
disorder.
Description:
Migraine-like attacks missing one of the features
required to fulfil all criteria for a subtype of migraine
coded above, and not fulfilling criteria for another
headache disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling all but one of criteria A-D for 1.1
Migraine without aura, or all but one of criteria A-C
for 1.2 Migraine with aura
B. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
In making a headache diagnosis, attacks that fulfil criteria
for both 2. Tension-type headache and 1.5
Probable migraine are coded as the former in accordance
with the general rule that a definite diagnosis
always trumps a probable diagnosis. However, in
patients who already have a migraine diagnosis, and
where the issue is to count the number of attacks they
are having (e.g. as an outcome measure in a drug trial),
attacks fulfilling criteria for 1.5 Probable migraine
should be counted as migraine. The reason for this is
that mild migraine attacks, or attacks treated early,
often do not achieve all characteristics necessary for a
migraine attack diagnosis but nevertheless respond to
specific migraine treatments.
1.5.1 Probable migraine without aura
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling all but one of criteria A–D for 1.1
Migraine without aura
B. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
1.5.2 Probable migraine with aura
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling all but one of criteria A–C for 1.2
Migraine with aura or any of its subforms
B. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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1.6 Episodic syndromes that may be associated with
migraine
Previously used terms:
Childhood periodic syndromes; periodic syndromes of
childhood.
Comments:
This group of disorders occurs in patients who also
have 1.1 Migraine without aura or 1.2 Migraine with
aura, or who have an increased likelihood to
develop either of these disorders. Although historically
noted to occur in childhood, they may also occur in
adults.
Additional conditions that may also occur in these
patients include episodes of motion sickness and periodic
sleep disorders including sleep walking, sleep talking,
night terrors and bruxism.
1.6.1 Recurrent gastrointestinal disturbance
Previously used terms:
Chronic abdominal pain; functional abdominal pain;
functional dyspepsia; irritable bowel syndrome; functional
abdominal pain syndrome.
Description:
Recurrent episodic attacks of abdominal pain and/or
discomfort, nausea and/or vomiting, occurring infrequently,
chronically or at predictable intervals, that
may be associated with migraine.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least five attacks with distinct episodes of
abdominal pain and/or discomfort and/or nausea
and/or vomiting
B. Normal gastrointestinal examination and
evaluation
C. Not attributed to another disorder.
1.6.1.1 Cyclic vomiting syndrome
Description:
Recurrent episodic attacks of intense nausea and
vomiting, usually stereotypical in the individual and
with predictable timing of episodes. Attacks may be
associated with pallor and lethargy. There is complete
resolution of symptoms between attacks.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least five attacks of intense nausea and vomiting,
fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Stereotypical in the individual patient and recurring
with predictable periodicity
C. All of the following:
1. nausea and vomiting occur at least four times
per hour
2. attacks last 1 hour and up to 10 days
3. attacks occur 1 week apart
D. Complete freedom from symptoms between attacks
E. Not attributed to another disorder.1
Note:
1. In particular, history and physical examination do
not show signs of gastrointestinal disease.
Comments:
1.6.1.1 Cyclic vomiting syndrome is typically a self-limiting
episodic condition occurring in childhood, with periods
of complete normality between episodes. The
cyclic nature is the hallmark, and is predictable.
This disorder was not included as a childhood periodic
syndrome in ICHD-I, but it was in ICHD-II. The
clinical features of this syndrome resemble those found
in association with migraine headaches, and multiple
threads of research over the last years have suggested
that cyclic vomiting syndrome is a condition related to
migraine.
1.6.1.2 Abdominal migraine
Description:
An idiopathic disorder seen mainly in children as recurrent
attacks of moderate to severe midline abdominal
pain, associated with vasomotor symptoms, nausea and
vomiting, lasting 2–72 hours and with normality
between episodes. Headache does not occur during
these episodes.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least five attacks of abdominal pain, fulfilling
criteria B–D
B. Pain has at least two of the following three
characteristics:
1. midline location, periumbilical or poorly
localized
2. dull or 'just sore' quality
3. moderate or severe intensity
C. During attacks, at least two of the following:
1. anorexia
2. nausea
3. vomiting
4. pallor
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D. Attacks last 2-72 hours when untreated or unsuccessfully
treated
E. Complete freedom from symptoms between attacks
F. Not attributed to another disorder.1
Note:
1. In particular, history and physical examination do
not show signs of gastrointestinal or renal disease,
or such disease has been ruled out by appropriate
investigations.
Comments:
Pain of 1.6.1.2 Abdominal migraine is severe enough to
interfere with normal daily activities.
In young children the presence of headache is
often overlooked. A careful history of presence or
absence of headache must be taken and, if
headache or head pain during attacks is identified,
a diagnosis of 1.1 Migraine without aura should be
considered.
Children may find it difficult to distinguish anorexia
from nausea. Pallor is often accompanied
by dark shadows under the eyes. In a few
patients, flushing is the predominant vasomotor
phenomenon.
Most children with abdominal migraine will develop
migraine headache later in life.
1.6.2 Benign paroxysmal vertigo
Description:
A disorder characterized by recurrent brief attacks of
vertigo, occurring without warning and resolving spontaneously,
in otherwise healthy children.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least five attacks fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Vertigo1 occurring without warning, maximal at
onset and resolving spontaneously after minutes to
hours without loss of consciousness
C. At least one of the following associated symptoms
or signs:
1. nystagmus
2. ataxia
3. vomiting
4. pallor
5. fearfulness
D. Normal neurological examination and audiometric
and vestibular functions between attacks
E. Not attributed to another disorder.
Note:
1. Young children with vertigo may not be able to
describe vertiginous symptoms. Parental observation
of episodic periods of unsteadiness may be
interpreted as vertigo in young children.
Comments:
Posterior fossa tumours, seizures and vestibular disorders
must be excluded.
The relationship between 1.6.2 Benign paroxysmal
vertigo and A1.6.6 Vestibular migraine (see Appendix)
needs to be further examined.
1.6.3 Benign paroxysmal torticollis
Description:
Recurrent episodes of head tilt to one side, perhaps
with slight rotation, which remit spontaneously. The
condition occurs in infants and small children, with
onset in the first year.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent attacks1 in a young child, fulfilling criteria
B and C
B. Tilt of the head to either side, with or without slight
rotation, remitting spontaneously after minutes to
days
C. At least one of the following associated symptoms
or signs:
1. pallor
2. irritability
3. malaise
4. vomiting
5. ataxia2
D. Normal neurological examination between attacks
E. Not attributed to another disorder.
Notes:
1. Attacks tend to recur monthly.
2. Ataxia is more likely in older children within the
affected age group.
Comments:
The child's head can be returned to the neutral position
during attacks: some resistance may be encountered,
but can be overcome.
The differential diagnosis includes gastro-oesophageal
reflux, idiopathic torsional dystonia and complex
partial seizure, but particular attention must be paid to
International Headache Society 2013
654 Cephalalgia 33(9)
the posterior fossa and craniocervical junction where
congenital or acquired lesions may produce torticollis.
These observations need further validation by patient
diaries, structured interviews and longitudinal data
collection.
1.6.3 Benign paroxysmal torticollis may evolve into
1.6.2 Benign paroxysmal vertigo or 1.2 Migraine with
aura (particularly 1.2.2 Migraine with brainstem aura),
or cease without further symptoms.
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1.5 Probable migraine
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1.6.1 Recurrent gastrointestinal disturbance
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Evidence for existence and treatment options. Paediatr Drugs
2002; 4:1–8.
Thiessen PN. Recurrent abdominal pain. Pediatr Rev 2002;
23:39–46.
Welch KM. Scientific basis of migraine: speculation on the
relationship to cyclic vomiting. Dig Dis Sci 1999; 44 Suppl 8:
26S–30S.
1.6.2 Benign paroxysmal vertigo
Drigo P, Carli G and Laverda AM. Benign paroxysmal vertigo of
childhood. Brain Dev (Netherlands) 2001; 23: 38–41.
Dunn DW and Snyder CH. Benign paroxysmal vertigo of childhood.
Am J Dis Child 1976; 130:1099–1100.
Fenichel GM. Migraine as a cause of benign paroxysmal vertigo
of childhood. J Pediatr 1967; 71:114–115.
1.6.3 Benign paroxysmal torticollis
Drigo, P, Carli G and Laverda AM. Benign paroxysmal torticollis
of infancy. Brain Dev 2000; 22:169–172.
Giffin NJ, Benton S and Goadsby PJ. Benign paroxysmal torticollis
of infancy: Four new cases and linkage to CACNA1A
mutation. Dev Med Child Neurol 2002; 44:490–493.
Rosman NP, Douglass LM, Sharif UM, Paolini J. The neurology
of benign paroxysmal torticollis of infancy: Report of 10
new cases and review of the literature. J Child Neurol 2009;
24:155–160.
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658 Cephalalgia 33(9)
2. Tension-type headache (TTH)
2.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache
2.1.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache
associated with pericranial tenderness
2.1.2 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache
not associated with pericranial tenderness
2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache
2.2.1 Frequent episodic tension-type headache
associated with pericranial tenderness
2.2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache not
associated with pericranial tenderness
2.3 Chronic tension-type headache
2.3.1 Chronic tension-type headache associated
with pericranial tenderness
2.3.2 Chronic tension-type headache not associated
with pericranial tenderness
2.4 Probable tension-type headache
2.4.1 Probable infrequent episodic tension-type
headache
2.4.2 Probable frequent episodic tension-type
headache
2.4.3 Probable chronic tension-type headache
Previously used terms:
Tension headache; muscle contraction headache; psychomyogenic
headache; stress headache; ordinary
headache; essential headache; idiopathic headache; psychogenic
headache.
Coded elsewhere:
Tension-type-like headache attributed to another disorder
is coded to that disorder.
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a headache with the characteristics of tensiontype
characteristics occurs for the first time in close
temporal relation to another disorder that is known
to cause headache, or fulfils other criteria for causation
by that disorder, the new headache is coded as a
secondary headache attributed to the causative
disorder. When pre-existing tension-type headache
becomes chronic in close temporal relation to such a
causative disorder, both the initial tension-type headache
diagnosis and the secondary diagnosis should be
given. When pre-existing tension-type headache is
made significantly worse (usually meaning a two-fold
or greater increase in frequency and/or severity) in
close temporal relation to such a causative disorder,
both the initial tension-type headache diagnosis and
the secondary diagnosis should be given, provided
that there is good evidence that the disorder can
cause headache. In the case of chronic tension-type
headache with medication overuse, a close temporal
relation is often difficult to establish. Therefore, both
diagnoses, 2.3 Chronic tension-type headache and 8.2
Medication-overuse headache, should be given in all
such cases.
Introduction
2. Tension-type headache is very common, with a lifetime
prevalence in the general population ranging
between 30% and 78% in different studies, and it has
a very high socio-economic impact.
Although this type of headache was previously
considered to be primarily psychogenic, a number
of studies have appeared after publication of ICHDI
that strongly suggest a neurobiological basis, at
least for the more severe subtypes of tension-type
headache.
The division of 2. Tension-type headache into episodic
and chronic subtypes, which was introduced in
ICHD-I, has proved extremely useful. In ICHD-II,
the episodic form was further subdivided into an infrequent
subform with headache episodes less than once
per month and a frequent subform. 2.3 Chronic tensiontype
headache is a serious disease, causing greatly
decreased quality of life and high disability. 2.2
Frequent episodic tension-type headache can be associated
with considerable disability, and sometimes warrants
treatment with expensive drugs. In contrast, 2.1
Infrequent episodic tension-type headache, which occurs
in almost the entire population, usually has very little
impact on the individual and, in most instances,
requires no attention from the medical profession.
The distinction of 2.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type
headache from 2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache
thus separates individuals who typically do not
require medical management, and avoids categorizing
almost the entire population as having a significant
headache disorder, yet allows their headaches to be
classified.
The exact mechanisms of 2. Tension-type headache
are not known. Peripheral pain mechanisms are most
likely to play a role in 2.1 Infrequent episodic tensiontype
headache and 2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type
headache, whereas central pain mechanisms play a
more important role in 2.3 Chronic tension-type headache.
Increased pericranial tenderness recorded by
manual palpation is the most significant abnormal finding
in patients with tension-type headache. The tenderness
is typically present interictally, is further increased
during actual headache and increases with the intensity
and frequency of headaches. Pericranial tenderness is
easily recorded by manual palpation by small rotating
movements and a firm pressure (preferably aided by use
International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 659
of a palpometer) with the second and third fingers on
the frontal, temporal, masseter, pterygoid, sternocleidomastoid,
splenius and trapezius muscles. Local tenderness
scores of 0-3 for each muscle can be summed to
yield a total tenderness score for each individual.
Palpation is a useful guide for treatment strategy. It
also adds value and credibility to the explanations
given to the patient.
Increased tenderness is most likely of pathophysiological
importance. The Classification Committee
encourages further research into the pathophysiological
mechanisms and treatment of 2. Tension-type headache.
With this aim, ICHD-II distinguished patients with and
without such disorder of the pericranial muscles, and
this subdivision is maintained in ICHD-3 beta to stimulate
further research in this area.
The diagnostic difficulty most often encountered
among the primary headache disorders is to discriminate
between tension-type headache and mild migraine
without aura. This is more so because patients with
frequent headaches often suffer from both disorders.
It has been suggested to tighten the diagnostic criteria
for 2. Tension-type headache in the hope of excluding
migraine that phenotypically resembles tension-type
headache. Such an increase in specificity would, at
the same time, reduce the sensitivity of the criteria,
resulting in a larger proportion of patients whose headaches
could be classified only as 2.4 Probable tensiontype
headache or 1.5 Probable migraine. Stricter diagnostic
criteria for 2. Tension-type headache were proposed
in the Appendix of ICHD-II, as A2. Tensiontype
headache, but so far with no evidence that such a
change would be beneficial. These stricter diagnostic
criteria remain in the Appendix, for research purposes
only. The Classification Committee recommends comparisons
between patients diagnosed according to each
set of criteria, not only for characterization of clinical
features but also for enquiry into pathophysiological
mechanisms and response to treatments.
2.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache
Description:
Infrequent episodes of headache, typically bilateral,
pressing or tightening in quality and of mild to moderate
intensity, lasting minutes to days. The pain does not
worsen with routine physical activity and is not associated
with nausea, but photophobia or phonophobia
may be present.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least 10 episodes of headache occurring on <1
day per month on average (<12 days per year) and
fulfilling criteria B-D
B. Lasting from 30 minutes to 7 days
C. At least two of the following four characteristics:
1. bilateral location
2. pressing or tightening (non-pulsating) quality
3. mild or moderate intensity
4. not aggravated by routine physical activity such
as walking or climbing stairs
D. Both of the following:
1. no nausea or vomiting
2. no more than one of photophobia or
phonophobia
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
2.1.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache
associated with pericranial tenderness
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Episodes fulfilling criteria for 2.1 Infrequent episodic
tension-type headache
B. Increased pericranial tenderness on manual
palpation.
2.1.2 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache not associated
with pericranial tenderness
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Episodes fulfilling criteria for 2.1 Infrequent episodic
tension-type headache
B. No increase in pericranial tenderness.
2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache
Description:
Frequent episodes of headache, typically bilateral,
pressing or tightening in quality and of mild to moderate
intensity, lasting minutes to days. The pain does not
worsen with routine physical activity and is not associated
with nausea, but photophobia or phonophobia
may be present.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least 10 episodes of headache occurring on 1-
14 days per month on average for >3 months
( 12 and <180 days per year) and fulfilling criteria
B-D
B. Lasting from 30 minutes to 7 days
C. At least two of the following four characteristics:
1. bilateral location
2. pressing or tightening (non-pulsating) quality
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660 Cephalalgia 33(9)
3. mild or moderate intensity
4. not aggravated by routine physical activity such
as walking or climbing stairs
D. Both of the following:
1. no nausea or vomiting
2. no more than one of photophobia or
phonophobia
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache often coexists
with 1.1 Migraine without aura. Coexisting tension-
type headache in migraineurs should preferably
be identified through use of a diagnostic headache
diary. The treatment of migraine differs considerably
from that of tension-type headache, and it is important
to educate patients to distinguish between these
headache types if they are to select the right treatment
for each while avoiding medication overuse and the
adverse consequence of 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache.
When headache fulfils criteria for both 1.5
Probable migraine and 2. Tension-type headache,
code as 2. Tension-type headache (or as any subtype
of it for which the criteria are fulfilled) under the
general rule that definite diagnoses always trump
probable diagnoses. When headache fulfils criteria
for both 1.5 Probable migraine and 2.4 Probable tension-
type headache, code as the former under the general
rule of hierarchy, which puts 1. Migraine and its
subtypes before 2. Tension-type headache and its
subtypes.
2.2.1 Frequent episodic tension-type headache associated
with pericranial tenderness
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Episodes fulfilling criteria for 2.2 Frequent episodic
tension-type headache
B. Increased pericranial tenderness on manual
palpation.
2.2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache not
associated with pericranial tenderness
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Episodes fulfilling criteria for 2.2 Frequent episodic
tension-type headache
B. No increase in pericranial tenderness.
2.3 Chronic tension-type headache
Coded elsewhere:
4.10 New daily persistent headache.
Description:
A disorder evolving from frequent episodic tensiontype
headache, with daily or very frequent episodes of
headache, typically bilateral, pressing or tightening in
quality and of mild to moderate intensity, lasting hours
to days, or unremitting. The pain does not worsen with
routine physical activity, but may be associated with
mild nausea, photophobia or phonophobia.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache occurring on 15 days per month on
average for >3 months ( 180 days per year), fulfilling
criteria B-D
B. Lasting hours to days, or unremitting
C. At least two of the following four characteristics:
1. bilateral location
2. pressing or tightening (non-pulsating) quality
3. mild or moderate intensity
4. not aggravated by routine physical activity such
as walking or climbing stairs
D. Both of the following:
1. no more than one of photophobia, phonophobia
or mild nausea
2. neither moderate or severe nausea nor vomiting
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
2.3 Chronic tension-type headache evolves over time
from 2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache;
when these criteria A-E are fulfilled by headache that,
unambiguously, is daily and unremitting from less than
24 hours after its first onset, code as 4.10 New daily
persistent headache. When the manner of onset is not
remembered or is otherwise uncertain, code as 2.3
Chronic tension-type headache.
Both 2.3 Chronic tension-type headache and 1.3
Chronic migraine require headache on at least 15 days
per month. For 2.3 Chronic tension-type headache,
headache on at least 15 days must meet the criteria
for 2. Tension-type headache and for 1.3 Chronic
migraine headache on at least 8 days must meet the
criteria for 1. Migraine. Therefore, a patient can fulfil
criteria for both these diagnoses, for example by having
headache on 25 days per month meeting migraine criteria
on 8 days and tension-type headache criteria on 17
days. In these cases, only the diagnosis 1.3 Chronic
migraine should be given.
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In many uncertain cases there is overuse of medication.
When this fulfils criterion B for any of the subforms
of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache and the
criteria for 2.3 Chronic tension-type headache are also
fulfilled, the rule is to code for both 2.3 Chronic tensiontype
headache and 8.2 Medication-overuse headache.
After drug withdrawal, the diagnosis should be re-evaluated:
not uncommonly the criteria for 2.3 Chronic tension-
type headache will no longer be fulfilled, with
reversion to one or other episodic subtype.
2.3.1 Chronic tension-type headache associated with
pericranial tenderness
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 2.3 Chronic tensiontype
headache
B. Increased pericranial tenderness on manual
palpation.
2.3.2 Chronic tension-type headache not associated with
pericranial tenderness
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 2.3 Chronic tensiontype
headache
B. No increase in pericranial tenderness.
2.4 Probable tension-type headache
Description:
Tension-type-like headache missing one of the features
required to fulfil all criteria for a subtype of tensiontype
headache coded above, and not fulfilling criteria
for another headache disorder.
Comment:
Patients meeting one of the sets of criteria below may
also meet the criteria for one of the subforms of 1.6
Probable migraine. In such cases, all other available
information should be used to decide which of the alternatives
is the more likely.
2.4.1 Probable infrequent episodic tension-type headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. One or more episodes of headache fulfilling all but
one of criteria A-D for 2.1 Infrequent episodic tension-
type headache
B. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
2.4.2 Probable frequent episodic tension-type headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Episodes of headache fulfilling all but one of criteria
A-D for 2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache
B. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
2.4.3 Probable chronic tension-type headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling all but one of criteria A-D for
2.3 Chronic episodic tension-type headache
B. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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3. Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias
(TACs)
3.1 Cluster headache
3.1.1 Episodic cluster headache
3.1.2 Chronic cluster headache
3.2 Paroxysmal hemicrania
3.2.1 Episodic paroxysmal hemicrania
3.2.2 Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania
3.3 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache
attacks
3.3.1 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache
attacks with conjunctival injection and
tearing (SUNCT)
3.3.1.1 Episodic SUNCT
3.3.1.2 Chronic SUNCT
3.3.2 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache
attacks with cranial autonomic symptoms
(SUNA)
3.3.2.1 Episodic SUNA
3.3.2.2 Chronic SUNA
3.4 Hemicrania continua
3.5 Probable trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia
3.5.1 Probable cluster headache
3.5.2 Probable paroxysmal hemicrania
3.5.3 Probable short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform
headache attacks
3.5.4 Probable hemicrania continua
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a new headache with the characteristics of a trigeminal
autonomic cephalalgia (TAC) occurs for the
first time in close temporal relation to another disorder
known to cause headache, or fulfils other criteria for
causation by that disorder, the new headache is coded
as a secondary headache attributed to the causative
disorder. When a pre-existing TAC becomes chronic
in close temporal relation to such a causative disorder,
both the initial TAC diagnosis and the secondary diagnosis
should be given. When a pre-existing TAC is
made significantly worse (usually meaning a two-fold
or greater increase in frequency and/or severity) in close
temporal relation to such a causative disorder, both the
initial TAC diagnosis and the secondary headache diagnosis
should be given, provided that there is good evidence
that the disorder can cause headache.
Introduction
The trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs) share
the clinical features of headache, which is usually lateralized,
and often prominent cranial parasympathetic
autonomic features, which are again lateralized and
ipsilateral to the headache. Experimental and human
functional imaging suggests that these syndromes activate
a normal human trigeminal parasympathetic
reflex, with clinical signs of cranial sympathetic dysfunction
being secondary.
Typical migraine aura can be seen, rarely, in association
with TACs.
3.1 Cluster headache
Previously used terms:
Ciliary neuralgia; erythro-melalgia of the head; erythroprosopalgia
of Bing; hemicrania angioparalytica; hemicrania
neuralgiformis chronica; histaminic cephalalgia;
Horton's headache; Harris-Horton's disease; migrainous
neuralgia (of Harris); petrosal neuralgia (of
Gardner); Sluder's neuralgia; spheno-palatine neuralgia;
vidian neuralgia.
Coded elsewhere:
Symptomatic cluster headache, secondary to another
disorder, is coded as a secondary headache attributed
to that disorder.
Description:
Attacks of severe, strictly unilateral pain which is orbital,
supraorbital, temporal or in any combination of
these sites, lasting 15–180 minutes and occurring from
once every other day to eight times a day. The pain is
associated with ipsilateral conjunctival injection, lacrimation,
nasal congestion, rhinorrhoea, forehead and
facial sweating, miosis, ptosis and/or eyelid oedema,
and/or with restlessness or agitation.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least five attacks fulfilling criteria B–D
B. Severe or very severe unilateral orbital, supraorbital
and/or temporal pain lasting 15–180 minutes (when
untreated)1
C. Either or both of the following:
1. at least one of the following symptoms or signs,
ipsilateral to the headache:
a) conjunctival injection and/or lacrimation
b) nasal congestion and/or rhinorrhoea
c) eyelid oedema
d) forehead and facial sweating
e) forehead and facial flushing
f) sensation of fullness in the ear
g) miosis and/or ptosis
2. a sense of restlessness or agitation
D. Attacks have a frequency between one every other
day and eight per day for more than half of the time
when the disorder is active
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ICHD-3 beta 665
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. During part (but less than half) of the time-course
of 3.1 Cluster headache, attacks may be less severe
and/or of shorter or longer duration.
Comments:
Attacks occur in series lasting for weeks or months (socalled
cluster periods) separated by remission periods
usually lasting months or years. About 10–15% of
patients have 3.1.2 Chronic cluster headache, without
such remission periods. In a large series with good
follow-up, one-quarter of patients had only a single
cluster period. Such patients meet the criteria for and
should be coded as 3.1 Cluster headache.
The pain of 3.1 Cluster headache is maximal orbitally,
supraorbitally, temporally or in any combination
of these sites, but may spread to other regions. During
the worst attacks, the intensity of pain is excruciating.
Patients are usually unable to lie down, and characteristically
pace the floor. Pain usually recurs on the same
side of the head during an individual cluster period.
During a cluster period in 3.1.1 Episodic cluster headache,
and at any time in 3.1.2 Chronic cluster headache,
attacks occur regularly and may be provoked by alcohol,
histamine or nitroglycerin.
Age at onset is usually 20–40 years. For unknown
reasons, men are afflicted three times more often than
women.
Acute attacks involve activation in the region of the
posterior hypothalamic grey matter. 3.1 Cluster headache
may be autosomal dominant in about 5% of cases.
Some patients have been described who have both
3.1 Cluster headache and 13.1 Trigeminal neuralgia
(sometimes referred to as cluster-tic syndrome). They
should receive both diagnoses. The importance of this
observation is that both conditions must be treated for
the patient to become headache-free.
3.1.1 Episodic cluster headache
Description:
Cluster headache attacks occurring in periods lasting
from 7 days to 1 year, separated by pain-free periods
lasting at least 1 month.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.1 Cluster headache
and occurring in bouts (cluster periods)
B. At least two cluster periods lasting from 7 days to 1
year (when untreated) and separated by pain-free
remission periods of 1 month.
Comment:
Cluster periods usually last between 2 weeks and 3
months.
3.1.2 Chronic cluster headache
Description:
Cluster headache attacks occurring for more than 1
year without remission, or with remission periods lasting
less than 1 month.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.1 Cluster headache,
and criterion B below
B. Occurring without a remission period, or with
remissions lasting <1 month, for at least 1 year.
Comment:
3.1.2 Chronic cluster headache may arise de novo (previously
referred to as primary chronic cluster headache),
or evolve from 3.1.1 Episodic cluster headache (previously
secondary chronic cluster headache). In some
patients change occurs from 3.1.2 Chronic cluster headache
to 3.1.1 Episodic cluster headache.
3.2 Paroxysmal hemicrania
Description:
Attacks of severe, strictly unilateral pain which is orbital,
supraorbital, temporal or in any combination of
these sites, lasting 2–30 minutes and occurring several
or many times a day. The attacks are associated with
ipsilateral conjunctival injection, lacrimation, nasal
congestion, rhinorrhoea, forehead and facial sweating,
miosis, ptosis and/or eyelid oedema. They respond
absolutely to indomethacin.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least 20 attacks fulfilling criteria B-E
B. Severe unilateral orbital, supraorbital and/or temporal
pain lasting 2–30 minutes
C. At least one of the following symptoms or signs,
ipsilateral to the pain:
1. conjunctival injection and/or lacrimation
2. nasal congestion and/or rhinorrhoea
3. eyelid oedema
4. forehead and facial sweating
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666 Cephalalgia 33(9)
5. forehead and facial flushing
6. sensation of fullness in the ear
7. miosis and/or ptosis
D. Attacks have a frequency above five per day for
more than half of the time
E. Attacks are prevented absolutely by therapeutic
doses of indomethacin1
F. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. In an adult, oral indomethacin should be used initially
in a dose of at least 150 mg daily and increased
if necessary up to 225 mg daily. The dose by injection
is 100–200 mg. Smaller maintenance doses are
often employed.
Comment:
In contrast to cluster headache, there is no male predominance.
Onset is usually in adulthood, although
childhood cases are reported.
3.2.1 Episodic paroxysmal hemicrania
Description:
Attacks of paroxysmal hemicrania occurring in periods
lasting from 7 days to 1 year, separated by pain-free
periods lasting at least 1 month.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.2 Paroxysmal hemicrania
and occurring in bouts
B. At least two bouts lasting from 7 days to 1 year
(when untreated) and separated by pain-free remission
periods of 1 month.
3.2.2 Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania
Description:
Attacks of paroxysmal hemicrania occurring for more
than 1 year without remission, or with remission periods
lasting less than 1 month.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.2 Paroxysmal hemicrania,
and criterion B below
B. Occurring without a remission period, or with
remissions lasting <1 month, for at least 1 year.
Comment:
Patients who fulfil criteria for both 3.2.2 Chronic paroxysmal
hemicrania and 13.1 Trigeminal neuralgia
(sometimes referred to as CPH-tic syndrome) should
receive both diagnoses. Their recognition is important,
as both disorders require treatment. The pathophysiological
significance of the association is not yet clear.
3.3 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks
Description:
Attacks of moderate or severe, strictly unilateral head
pain lasting seconds to minutes, occurring at least once
a day and usually associated with prominent lacrimation
and redness of the ipsilateral eye.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least 20 attacks fulfilling criteria B–D
B. Moderate or severe unilateral head pain, with orbital,
supraorbital, temporal and/or other trigeminal
distribution, lasting for 1–600 seconds and occurring
as single stabs, series of stabs or in a sawtooth
pattern
C. At least one of the following cranial autonomic
symptoms or signs, ipsilateral to the pain:
1. conjunctival injection and/or lacrimation
2. nasal congestion and/or rhinorrhoea
3. eyelid oedema
4. forehead and facial sweating
5. forehead and facial flushing
6. sensation of fullness in the ear
7. miosis and/or ptosis
D. Attacks have a frequency of at least one a day for
more than half of the time when the disorder is
active
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Longer-duration attacks are characterized by multiple
stabs or a saw-tooth pain pattern.
Two subtypes of 3.3 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform
headache attacks are recognized in ICHD-3 beta:
3.3.1 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache
attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing
(SUNCT) and 3.3.2 Short lasting unilateral neuralgiform
headache attacks with cranial autonomic symptoms
(SUNA). 3.3.1 SUNCT may be a subform of 3.3.2
SUNA, although this requires further study.
Meanwhile, each is classified as a separate subtype,
described below.
3.3.1 SUNCT and 3.3.2 SUNA are usually triggerable
without a refractory period. This is in contrast to
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13.1 Trigeminal neuralgia, which usually has a refractory
period after each attack.
3.3.1 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache
attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing
(SUNCT)
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.3 Short-lasting unilateral
neuralgiform headache attacks
B. Both of conjunctival injection and lacrimation
(tearing).
Comments:
The literature suggests that the most common mimic of
3.3.1 SUNCT is a lesion in the posterior fossa.
Patients have been described in whom there is overlap
between 3.3.1 SUNCT and 13.1 Trigeminal neuralgia.
Differentiation is clinically complex. Such patients
should receive both diagnoses.
Patients with both 3.3.1 SUNCT and 3.1 Cluster
headache have been reported; the pathophysiological
significance of this overlap is yet to be determined.
3.3.1.1 Episodic SUNCT
Description:
Attacks of SUNCT occurring in periods lasting from 7
days to 1 year, separated by pain-free periods lasting 1
month or more.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.3.1 Short-lasting unilateral
neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival
injection and tearing and occurring in bouts
B. At least two bouts lasting from 7 days to 1 year and
separated by pain-free remission periods of 1
month.
3.3.1.2 Chronic SUNCT
Description:
Attacks of SUNCT occurring for more than 1 year
without remission, or with remission periods lasting
less than 1 month.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.3.1 Short-lasting unilateral
neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival
injection and tearing, and criterion B below
B. Occurring without a remission period, or with
remissions lasting <1 month, for at least 1 year.
3.3.2 Short lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache
attacks with cranial autonomic symptoms (SUNA)
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.3 Short-lasting unilateral
neuralgiform headache attacks, and criterion B
below
B. Only one or neither of conjunctival injection and
lacrimation (tearing).
3.3.2.1 Episodic SUNA
Description:
Attacks of SUNA occurring in periods lasting from 7
days to 1 year, separated by pain-free periods lasting at
least 1 month.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.3.2 Short-lasting unilateral
neuralgiform headache attacks with cranial
autonomic symptoms and occurring in bouts
B. At least two bouts lasting from 7 days to 1 year and
separated by pain-free remission periods of 1
month.
3.3.2.2 Chronic SUNA
Description:
Attacks of SUNA occurring for more than 1 year without
remission, or with remission periods lasting less
than 1 month.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks fulfilling criteria for 3.3.2 Short-lasting unilateral
neuralgiform headache attacks with cranial
autonomic symptoms, and criterion B below
B. Occurring without a remission period, or with
remissions lasting <1 month, for at least 1 year.
3.4 Hemicrania continua
Description:
Persistent, strictly unilateral headache, associated with
ipsilateral conjunctival injection, lacrimation, nasal
congestion, rhinorrhoea, forehead and facial sweating,
miosis, ptosis and/or eyelid oedema, and/or with restlessness
or agitation. The headache is absolutely sensitive
to indomethacin.
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668 Cephalalgia 33(9)
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral headache fulfilling criteria B-D
B. Present for >3 months, with exacerbations of moderate
or greater intensity
C. Either or both of the following:
1. at least one of the following symptoms or signs,
ipsilateral to the headache:
a) conjunctival injection and/or lacrimation
b) nasal congestion and/or rhinorrhoea
c) eyelid oedema
d) forehead and facial sweating
e) forehead and facial flushing
f) sensation of fullness in the ear
g) miosis and/or ptosis
2. a sense of restlessness or agitation, or aggravation
of the pain by movement
D. Responds absolutely to therapeutic doses of
indomethacin1
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. In an adult, oral indomethacin should be used initially
in a dose of at least 150 mg daily and increased
if necessary up to 225 mg daily. The dose by injection
is 100–200 mg. Smaller maintenance doses are
often employed.
Comments:
Migrainous symptoms such as photophobia
and phonophobia are often seen in 3.4 Hemicrania
continua.
3.4 Hemicrania continua has been included under 3.
Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias in ICHD-3 beta
(previously it was under 4. Other primary headache disorders)
on the basis that the pain is typically unilateral,
as are the cranial autonomic symptoms when present.
Brain imaging studies show important overlaps
between all disorders included here, notably activation
in the region of the posterior hypothalamic grey. In
addition, the absolute response to indomethacin of
3.4 Hemicrania continua is shared with 3.2
Paroxysmal hemicrania.
3.4.1 Hemicrania continua, remitting subtype
Description:
Hemicrania continua characterized by pain that is not
continuous but is interrupted by remission periods of at
least 1 day.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 3.4 Hemicrania continua,
and criterion B below
B. Headache is not daily or continuous, but interrupted
by remission periods of 1 day without
treatment.
Comment:
3.4.1 Hemicrania continua, remitting subtype can arise
de novo or from 3.4.2 Hemicrania continua, unremitting
subtype.
3.4.2 Hemicrania continua, unremitting subtype
Description:
Hemicrania continua characterized by continuous pain,
without remission periods of at least 1 day, for at least 1
year.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 3.4 Hemicrania continua,
and criterion B below
B. Headache is daily and continuous for at least 1 year,
without remission periods of 1 day.
Comment:
3.4.2 Hemicrania continua, unremitting subtype can arise
de novo or evolve from 3.4.1 Hemicrania continua,
remitting subtype. The majority of patients have the
unremitting subtype from onset.
3.5 Probable trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia
Description:
Headache attacks which are believed to be a type of 3.
Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia, but which are missing
one of the features required to fulfil all criteria for
any of the subtypes coded above, and do not fulfil all
criteria for another headache disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache attacks fulfilling all but one of criteria
A-D for 3.1 Cluster headache, criteria A-E for 3.2
Paroxysmal hemicrania, criteria A-D for 3.3 Shortlasting
unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks or
criteria A-D for 3.4 Hemicrania continua
B. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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Comment:
Patients may be coded 3.5.1 Probable cluster headache,
3.5.2 Probable paroxysmal hemicrania, 3.5.3 Probable
short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks
or 3.5.4 Probable hemicrania continua. Such patients
either have not had a sufficient number of typical
attacks (e.g. a first bout of cluster headache), or have
had, but fail to fulfil one of the other criteria.
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4. Other primary headache disorders
4.1 Primary cough headache
4.1.1 Probable primary cough headache
4.2 Primary exercise headache
4.2.1 Probable primary exercise headache
4.3 Primary headache associated with sexual activity
4.3.1 Probable primary headache associated with
sexual activity
4.4 Primary thunderclap headache
4.5 Cold-stimulus headache
4.5.1 Headache attributed to external application
of a cold stimulus
4.5.2 Headache attributed to ingestion or inhalation
of a cold stimulus
4.5.3 Probable cold-stimulus headache
4.5.3.1 Headache probably attributed to
external application of a cold
stimulus
4.5.3.2 Headache probably attributed to
ingestion or inhalation of a cold
stimulus
4.6 External-pressure headache
4.6.1 External-compression headache
4.6.2 External-traction headache
4.6.3 Probable external-pressure headache
4.6.3.1 Probable external-compression
headache
4.6.3.2 Probable external-traction headache
4.7 Primary stabbing headache
4.7.1 Probable primary stabbing headache
4.8 Nummular headache
4.8.1 Probable nummular headache
4.9 Hypnic headache
4.9.1 Probable hypnic headache
4.10 New daily persistent headache (NDPH)
4.10.1 Probable new daily persistent
headache
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a headache with the characteristics of any of the
disorders classified here occurs for the first time in close
temporal relation to another disorder that is known to
cause headache, or fulfils other criteria for causation by
that disorder, the new headache is coded as a secondary
headache attributed to the causative disorder. When a
pre-existing headache with the characteristics of any of
the disorders classified here becomes chronic, or is made
significantly worse (usually meaning a two-fold or
greater increase in frequency and/or severity), in close
temporal relation to such a causative disorder, both the
initial headache diagnosis and the secondary headache
diagnosis should be given, provided that there is good
evidence that the disorder can cause headache.
Introduction
This chapter includes a number of primary headache
disorders that are clinically heterogeneous. Their
pathogenesis is still poorly understood, and their treatments
are suggested on the basis of anecdotal reports or
uncontrolled trials. Headaches with similar characteristics
to several of these disorders can be symptomatic of
another disorder (i.e. secondary headaches); when they
first present, they demand careful evaluation by imaging
and/or other appropriate tests.
The onset of some of these headaches, for example,
4.2 Primary exercise headache, 4.3 Primary headache
associated with sexual activity and 4.4 Primary thunderclap
headache, can be acute, and affected patients are
sometimes assessed in emergency departments.
Appropriate and full investigation (neuroimaging, in
particular) is mandatory in these cases.
This chapter also includes some clinical entities, such
as 4.7 Primary stabbing headache and 4.9 Hypnic headache,
that are primary in most cases. In addition, more
and more evidence indicates that 4.8 Nummular headache
is a primary headache disorder, and therefore it
has been moved from the Appendix of ICHD-II to this
chapter of ICHD-3 beta. Two headache disorders originally
in chapter 13 of ICHD-II have also been moved
to this chapter: 4.5 Cold-stimulus headache and 4.6
External-pressure headache. The latter includes 4.6.1
External-compression headache and the newly added
entity, 4.6.2 External-traction headache, because these
seem more likely to be primary headache disorders in
that they are brought on by physiological (non-damaging)
stimuli. In contrast, 3.4 Hemicrania continua, originally
in this chapter in ICHD-II, is now moved to
chapter 3 because evidence indicates that it rightly
belongs to 3. Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias.
The headache disorders in this chapter can be
grouped into four categories: (1) headaches associated
with physical exertion, including 4.1 Primary cough
headache, 4.2 Primary exercise headache, 4.3 Primary
headache attributed to sexual activity and 4.4 Primary
thunderclap headache; (2) headaches attributed to direct
physical stimuli, including 4.5 Cold-stimulus headache
and 4.6 External-pressure headache; (3) epicranial headaches
(i.e. head pain over the scalp), including 4.7
Primary stabbing headache and 4.8 Nummular headache
(as well as A4.11 Epicrania fugax in the Appendix);
and (4) other miscellaneous primary headache
disorders including 4.9 Hypnic headache and 4.10 New
daily persistent headache. Therefore, the coding
sequence is rearranged in ICHD-3 beta according to
these groupings.
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4.1 Primary cough headache
Previously used terms:
Benign cough headache; Valsalva-manoeuvre headache.
Description:
Headache precipitated by coughing or other Valsalva
(straining) manoeuvre, but not by prolonged physical
exercise, in the absence of any intracranial disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two headache episodes fulfilling criteria BD
B. Brought on by and occurring only in association
with coughing, straining and/or other Valsalva
manoeuvre
C. Sudden onset
D. Lasting between 1 second and 2 hours
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
4.1 Primary cough headache is a rare condition,
accounting for 1% or fewer of all headache patients
consulting neurological clinics. However, one report
found one-fifth of patients with cough seen in a chest
medicine clinic had cough headache.
4.1 Primary cough headache arises moments after the
cough, reaches its peak almost immediately, and then
subsides over several seconds to a few minutes
(although some patients experience mild to moderate
headache for 2 hours). It is usually bilateral and posterior,
and predominantly affects patients older than
40 years of age. There is a significant correlation
between the frequency of cough and the severity of
the headache. Associated symptoms such as vertigo,
nausea and sleep abnormality have been reported by
up to two-thirds of patients with 4.1 Primary cough
headache.
Although indomethacin (50–200 mg/day) is usually
effective in treatment of 4.1 Primary cough headache, a
few symptomatic cases have been reported to respond
to this treatment. The syndrome of cough headache is
symptomatic in about 40% of cases, and the majority
of patients in whom this is so have Arnold-Chiari malformation
type I. Other reported causes include CSF
hypotension, carotid or vertebrobasilar diseases,
middle cranial fossa or posterior fossa tumours, midbrain
cyst, basilar impression, platybasia, subdural haematoma,
cerebral aneurysms and reversible cerebral
vasoconstriction syndrome. Diagnostic neuroimaging
plays an important role in the search for possible intracranial
lesions or abnormalities. As subtentorial
tumours accounted for more than 50% of intracranial
space-occupying lesions in children, cough headache in
paediatric patients should be considered symptomatic
until proved otherwise.
4.1.1 Probable primary cough headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Either of the following:
1. a single headache episode fulfilling criteria B-D
2. at least two headache episodes fulfilling criterion
B and either of criteria C and D
B. Brought on by and occurring only in association
with coughing, straining and/or other Valsalva
manoeuvre
C. Sudden onset
D. Lasting between 1 second and 2 hours
E. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
F. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
4.2 Primary exercise headache
Previously used terms:
Primary exertional headache; benign exertional
headache.
Coded elsewhere:
Exercise-induced migraine is coded under 1. Migraine
according to its subtype.
Description:
Headache precipitated by any form of exercise in the
absence of any intracranial disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two headache episodes fulfilling criteria B
and C
B. Brought on by and occurring only during or after
strenuous physical exercise
C. Lasting <48 hours
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
4.2 Primary exercise headache occurs particularly in hot
weather or at high altitude. Subforms such as 'weightlifters'
headache are recognized but not individually
classified. Unlike 4.1 Primary cough headache, which
can be triggered by short-lasting trains of efforts (i.e.
Valsalva-like manoeuvres), 4.2 Primary exercise
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headache is usually precipitated by sustained physically
strenuous exercise.
Headache had a pulsating character in most respondents
with exercise headache in the Va˚ ga˚ study (less so
among adolescent sufferers, of whom almost half had
headache durations of less than 5 minutes).
There are reports of prevention in some patients by
ingestion of ergotamine tartrate. Indomethacin has
been found effective in the majority of the cases.
The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying
4.2 Primary exercise headache are unknown. Most
investigators believe it is vascular in origin, hypothesizing
that venous or arterial distension, secondary to physical
exercise, is the pain-inducing mechanism. The
recent finding that patients with primary exercise headache
have significantly higher prevalence of internal
jugular venous valve incompetence (70% compared
with 20% of controls), suggests that intracranial
venous congestion caused by retrograde jugular
venous flow may play a role in the pathophysiology
of this disorder.
Symptomatic cases occur. On first occurrence of
headache with these characteristics, it is mandatory to
exclude subarachnoid haemorrhage, arterial dissection
and reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome
(RCVS).
4.2.1 Probable primary exercise headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Either of the following:
1. a single headache episode fulfilling criteria B
and C
2. at least two headache episodes fulfilling criterion
B but not criterion C
B. Brought on by and occurring only during or after
strenuous physical exercise
C. Lasting <48 hours
D. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
4.3 Primary headache associated with sexual activity
Previously used terms:
Benign sex headache; benign vascular sexual headache;
coital cephalalgia; coital headache; intercourse headache;
orgasmic cephalalgia; orgasmic headache; sexual
headache.
Coded elsewhere:
Postural headache occurring after coitus should be
coded as 7.2.3 Headache attributed to spontaneous
intracranial hypotension because it is most probably a
result of CSF leakage.
Description:
Headache precipitated by sexual activity, usually starting
as a dull bilateral ache as sexual excitement
increases and suddenly becoming intense at orgasm,
in the absence of any intracranial disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two episodes of pain in the head and/or
neck fulfilling criteria B-D
B. Brought on by and occurring only during sexual
activity
C. Either or both of the following:
1. increasing in intensity with increasing sexual
excitement
2. abrupt explosive intensity just before or with
orgasm
D. Lasting from 1 minute to 24 hours with severe
intensity and/or up to 72 hours with mild intensity
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Two subforms (preorgasmic headache and orgasmic
headache) were included in ICHD-I and ICHD-II, but
clinical studies since have been unable to distinguish
these; therefore, 4.3 Headache associated with sexual
activity is now regarded as a single entity with variable
presentation.
Recent studies have shown that up to 40% of all
cases run a chronic course over more than a year.
Some patients experience only one attack of 4.3
Primary headache attributed to sexual activity during
their lives; they should be diagnosed as 4.3.1 Probable
primary headache associated with sexual activity. For
further research on this headache type, it is recommended
to include only patients with at least two
attacks.
Epidemiological research has further shown that 4.3
Primary headache associated with sexual activity can
occur at any sexually active age, is more prevalent in
males than in females (ratios range from 1.2:1 to 3:1),
occurs independently of the type of sexual activity, is
not accompanied by autonomic or vegetative symptoms
in most cases, is bilateral in two-thirds and unilateral
in one-third of cases and is diffuse or occipitally
localized in 80% of cases. Attack frequency of 4.3
Primary headache attributed to sexual activity should
always be related to the frequency of sexual activity.
4.3 Primary headache associated with sexual activity
is not associated with disturbance of consciousness,
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vomiting or visual, sensory or motor symptoms
(whereas symptomatic sexual headache may be). On
the first onset of headache with sexual activity, it is
mandatory to exclude subarachnoid haemorrhage,
arterial dissection and reversible cerebral vasoconstriction
syndrome (RCVS). Multiple explosive headaches
during sexual activities should be considered as 6.7.3
Headache attributed to reversible cerebral vasoconstriction
syndrome (RCVS) (qv) until proven otherwise by
angiographic studies (including conventional, magnetic
resonance or computed tomography angiography) or
transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. Of note, vasoconstrictions
may not be observed at the early stage of
RCVS; therefore, follow-up studies may be needed.
4.3.1 Probable primary headache associated with sexual
activity
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Either of the following:
1. a single headache episode fulfilling criteria B-D
2. at least two headache episodes fulfilling criterion
B and either but not both of criteria C and D
B. Brought on by and occurring only during sexual
activity
C. Either or both of the following:
1. increasing in intensity with increasing sexual
excitement
2. abrupt explosive intensity just before or with
orgasm
D. Lasting from 1 minute to 24 hours with severe
intensity and/or up to 72 hours with mild intensity
E. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
F. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
4.4 Primary thunderclap headache
Previously used term:
Benign thunderclap headache.
Coded elsewhere:
4.1 Primary cough headache, 4.2 Primary exercise headache
and 4.3 Primary headache associated with sexual
activity can all present as thunderclap headache. When
such headache is attributed uniquely to one of these
triggers, it should be coded accordingly as one of
these headache types.
Description:
High-intensity headache of abrupt onset, mimicking
that of ruptured cerebral aneurysm, in the absence of
any intracranial pathology.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Severe head pain fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Abrupt onset, reaching maximum intensity in <1
minute
C. Lasting for 5 minutes
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Evidence that thunderclap headache exists as a primary
disorder is poor: the search for an underlying cause
should be expedited and exhaustive. Thunderclap headache
is frequently associated with serious vascular
intracranial disorders, particularly subarachnoid haemorrhage:
it is mandatory to exclude this and a range
of other such conditions including intracerebral haemorrhage,
cerebral venous thrombosis, unruptured vascular
malformation (mostly aneurysm), arterial
dissection (intra- and extracranial), reversible cerebral
vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS) and pituitary apoplexy.
Other organic causes of thunderclap headache
are meningitis, colloid cyst of the third ventricle, CSF
hypotension and acute sinusitis (particularly with barotrauma).
4.4 Primary thunderclap headache should be a
diagnosis of last resort, reached only when all organic
causes have been demonstrably excluded. This implies
normal brain imaging, including the brain vessels, and/
or normal CSF. Of note, vasoconstrictions may not be
observed in the early stage of RCVS. For this reason,
probable primary thunderclap headache is not a diagnosis
that should be made, even temporarily.
4.5 Cold-stimulus headache
Description:
Headache brought on by a cold stimulus applied externally
to the head or ingested or inhaled.
4.5.1 Headache attributed to external application of a
cold stimulus
Description:
Generalized headache following exposure of the unprotected
head to a very low environmental temperature.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two acute headache episodes fulfilling criteria
B and C
B. Brought on by and occurring only during application
of an external cold stimulus to the head
C. Resolving within 30 minutes after removal of the
cold stimulus
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D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
This headache is a result of external cooling of the
head, such as occurs during exposure in very cold
weather, diving into cold water or receiving cryotherapy.
Some patients develop intense, short-lasting, stabbing
headache midfrontally, although the pain can be
unilateral and temporal, frontal or retro-orbital.
4.5.2 Headache attributed to ingestion or inhalation of a
cold stimulus
Previously used terms:
Ice-cream headache; brain-freeze headache.
Description:
Short-lasting frontal or temporal pain, which may be
intense, induced in susceptible people by passage of
cold material (solid, liquid or gaseous) over the palate
and/or posterior pharyngeal wall.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two episodes of acute frontal or temporal
headache fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Brought on by and occurring immediately after a
cold stimulus to the palate and/or posterior pharyngeal
wall from ingestion of cold food or drink or
inhalation of cold air
C. Resolving within 10 minutes after removal of the
cold stimulus
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
4.5.2 Headache attributed to ingestion or inhalation of a
cold stimulus is common in the general population,
especially among those with 1. Migraine. Rapid ingestion
of crushed ice slurry is particularly likely to provoke
this headache, but eating ice-cream, even slowly,
can do so.
Headache is frontal or temporal, and most commonly
bilateral (but may be lateralized to the side of
usual migraine headache in those who have unilateral
headache as part of 1. Migraine).
4.5.3 Probable cold-stimulus headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. A single headache episode fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Brought on by and occurring only during or immediately
after a cold stimulus applied externally to
the head or ingested or inhaled
C. Resolving within 10 minutes after removal of the
cold stimulus
D. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Codable subforms are 4.5.3.1 Headache probably attributed
to external application of a cold stimulus and 4.5.3.2
Headache probably attributed to ingestion or inhalation
of a cold stimulus.
4.6 External-pressure headache
Description:
Headache resulting from sustained compression of or
traction on pericranial soft tissues.
Comment:
4.6 External-pressure headache is a primary headache
disorder because compression and traction are too
subtle to cause damage to the scalp; in other words,
they are physiological stimuli.
4.6.1 External-compression headache
Description:
Headache resulting from sustained compression of pericranial
soft tissues, for example by a tight band around
the head, hat or helmet, or goggles worn during swimming
or diving, without damage to the scalp.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two episodes of headache fulfilling criteria
B–D
B. Brought on by and occurring within 1 hour during
sustained external compression of the forehead or
scalp
C. Maximal at the site of external compression
D. Resolving within 1 hour after external compression
is relieved
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
4.6.2 External-traction headache
Previously used term:
Ponytail headache.
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Description:
Headache resulting from sustained traction on pericranial
soft tissues, without damage to the scalp.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two episodes of headache fulfilling criteria
B–D
B. Brought on by and occurring only during sustained
external traction on the scalp
C. Maximal at the traction site
D. Resolving within 1 hour after traction is relieved
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
The duration of headache varies with the severity and
duration of the external traction. Although headache is
maximal at the site of traction, it often extends to other
areas of the head.
4.6.3 Probable external-pressure headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Either of the following:
1. a single episode of headache fulfilling criteria
B–D
2. at least two episodes of headache fulfilling criterion
B and either but not both of criteria C and D
B. Brought on by and occurring only during sustained
external compression of or traction on the forehead
and/or scalp
C. Maximal at the compression or traction site
D. Resolving within 1 hour after compression or traction
is relieved
E. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
F. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Codable subforms are 4.6.3.1 Probable external-compression
headache and 4.6.3.2 Probable external-traction
headache.
4.7 Primary stabbing headache
Previously used terms:
Ice-pick pains; jabs and jolts; needle-in-the-eye syndrome;
ophthalmodynia periodica; sharp short-lived
head pain.
Description:
Transient and localized stabs of pain in the head that
occur spontaneously in the absence of organic disease
of underlying structures or of the cranial nerves.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Head pain occurring spontaneously as a single stab
or series of stabs and fulfilling criteria B–D
B. Each stab lasts for up to a few seconds
C. Stabs recur with irregular frequency, from one to
many per day
D. No cranial autonomic symptoms
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Studies show 80% of stabs last 3 seconds or less; rarely,
stabs last for 10–120 seconds. Attack frequency is generally
low, with one or a few per day. In rare cases,
stabs occur repetitively over days, and there has been
one description of status lasting 1 week.
4.7 Primary stabbing headache involves extratrigeminal
regions in 70% of cases. It may move from one
area to another, in either the same or the opposite
hemicranium: in only one-third of patients it has a
fixed location. When stabs are strictly localized to one
area, structural changes at this site and in the distribution
of the affected cranial nerve must be excluded.
A few patients have accompanying symptoms, but
not including cranial autonomic symptoms. The latter
help to differentiate 4.7 Primary stabbing headache from
3.3 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache
attacks.
4.7 Primary stabbing headache is more commonly
experienced by people with 1. Migraine, in which
cases stabs tend to be localized to the site habitually
affected by migraine headaches.
4.7.1 Probable primary stabbing headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Head pain occurring spontaneously as a single stab
or series of stabs and fulfilling two only of criteria
B–D
B. Each stab lasts for up to a few seconds
C. Stabs recur with irregular frequency, from one to
many per day
D. No cranial autonomic symptoms
E. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
F. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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4.8 Nummular headache
Previously used term:
Coin-shaped headache.
Description:
Pain of highly variable duration, but often chronic, in a
small circumscribed area of the scalp in the absence of
any underlying structural lesion.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Continuous or intermittent head pain fulfilling criterion
B
B. Felt exclusively in an area of the scalp, with all of
the following four characteristics:
1. sharply contoured
2. fixed in size and shape
3. round or elliptical
4. 1–6 cm in diameter
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The painful area may be localized in any part of the
scalp, but is usually in the parietal region. Rarely, 4.8
Nummular headache is bi- or multifocal, each symptomatic
area retaining all the characteristics of nummular
headache. Pain intensity is generally mild to moderate,
but occasionally severe. Superimposed on the background
pain, spontaneous or triggered exacerbations
may occur. Duration is highly variable: in up to 75%
of published cases, the disorder has been chronic (present
for longer than 3 months), but cases have also been
described with durations of seconds, minutes, hours
or days.
The affected area commonly shows variable combinations
of hypaesthesia, dysaesthesia, paraesthesia,
allodynia and/or tenderness.
Other causes, in particular structural and dermatological
lesions, must be excluded by history, physical
examination and appropriate investigations.
4.8.1 Probable nummular headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Continuous or intermittent head pain fulfilling criterion
B
B. Felt exclusively in an area of the scalp, with three
only of the following four characteristics:
1. sharply contoured
2. fixed in size and shape
3. round or elliptical
4. 1–6 cm in diameter
C. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
4.9 Hypnic headache
Previously used terms:
Hypnic headache syndrome; 'alarm clock' headache.
Description:
Frequently recurring headache attacks developing only
during sleep, causing wakening and lasting for up to 4
hours, without characteristic associated symptoms and
not attributed to other pathology.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent headache attacks fulfilling criteria B-E
B. Developing only during sleep, and causing
wakening
C. Occurring on 10 days per month for >3 months
D. Lasting 15 minutes and for up to 4 hours after
waking
E. No cranial autonomic symptoms or restlessness
F. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
4.9 Hypnic headache usually begins after age 50 years,
but may occur in younger people. The pain is usually
mild to moderate, but severe pain is reported by onefifth
of patients. Pain is bilateral in about two-thirds of
cases. Attacks usually last from 15 to 180 minutes, but
longer durations have been described. Most cases are
persistent, with daily or near daily headaches, but an
episodic subform (on less than 15 days per month) may
occur. Although it was thought that the features of 4.9
Hypnic headache were generally tension-type-like,
recent studies found that patients could present with
migraine-like features and some patients had nausea
during attacks.
Onset of 4.9 Hypnic headache is probably not related
to sleep stage. A recent MRI study showed grey matter
volume reduction in the hypothalamus in patients with
4.9 Hypnic headache.
Lithium, caffeine, melatonin and indomethacin have
been effective treatments in several reported cases.
Distinction from one of the subtypes of 3. Trigeminal
autonomic cephalalgias, especially 3.1 Cluster headache,
is necessary for effective management.
Other possible causes of headache developing during
and causing wakening from sleep should be ruled out,
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with particular attention given to sleep apnoea, nocturnal
hypertension, hypoglycaemia and medication overuse;
intracranial disorders must also be excluded.
However, the presence of sleep apnoea syndrome does
not necessarily exclude the diagnosis of 4.9 Hypnic
headache.
4.9.1 Probable hypnic headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent headache attacks fulfilling criterion B
and two only of criteria C-E
B. Developing only during sleep, and causing
wakening
C. Occurring on 10 days per month for >3 months
D. Lasting 15 minutes and for up to 4 hours after
waking
E. No cranial autonomic symptoms or restlessness
F. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
G. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
4.10 New daily persistent headache (NDPH)
Previously used terms:
Chronic headache with acute onset; de novo chronic
headache.
Description:
Persistent headache, daily from its onset, which is
clearly remembered. The pain lacks characteristic features,
and may be migraine-like or tension-type-like, or
have elements of both.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Persistent headache fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Distinct and clearly remembered onset, with pain
becoming continuous and unremitting within 24
hours
C. Present for >3 months
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
4.10 New daily persistent headache (NDPH) is unique
in that headache is daily from onset, and very soon
unremitting, typically occurring in individuals without
a prior headache history. Patients with this disorder
invariably recall and can accurately describe such an
onset; if they cannot do so, another diagnosis should
be made. Nevertheless, patients with prior headache
(1. Migraine or 2. Tension-type headache) are not
excluded from this diagnosis, but they should not
describe increasing headache frequency prior to its
onset. Similarly, patients with prior headache should
not describe exacerbation followed by medication
overuse.
4.10 New daily persistent headache (NDPH) may
have features suggestive of either 1. Migraine or
2. Tension-type headache. Even though criteria for 1.3
Chronic migraine and/or 2.3 Chronic tension-type headache
may also be fulfilled, the default diagnosis is 4.10
New daily persistent headache (NDPH) whenever the
criteria for this disorder are met. In contrast, when the
criteria for both 4.10 New daily persistent headache
(NDPH) and 3.4 Hemicrania continua are met, then
the latter is the default diagnosis.
Abortive drug use may exceed the limits defined as
causative of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache (qv). In
such cases, the diagnosis of 4.10 New daily persistent
headache cannot be made unless the onset of daily
headache clearly predates the medication overuse.
When this is so, both diagnoses, 4.10 New daily persistent
headache (NDPH) and 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache, should be given.
In all cases, other secondary headaches such as 7.1
Headache attributed to increased cerebrospinal fluid
pressure, 7.2 Headache attributed to low cerebrospinal
fluid pressure and 5.1 Acute headache attributed to traumatic
injury to the head should be ruled out by appropriate
investigations.
4.10 New daily persistent headache (NDPH)
has two subforms: a self-limiting subform that
typically resolves within several months without
therapy, and a refractory form that is resistant to
aggressive treatment regimens. These are not separately
coded.
4.10.1 Probable new daily persistent headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Persistent headache fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Distinct and clearly remembered onset, with pain
becoming continuous and unremitting within 24
hours
C. Present for <3 months
D. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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Doepp F, Valdueza JM and Schreiber SJ. Incompetence of internal
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Edis RH and Silbert PL. Sequential benign sexual headache and
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Lance JW and Lambros J. Unilateral exertional headache as
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McCrory P. Recognizing exercise-induced headache. Phys Sports
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Silbert PL, Edis RH, Stewart-Wynne EG and Gubbay SS. Benign
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Sjaastad O and Bakketeig LS. Exertional headache. I.
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Wang SJ and Fuh JL. The 'Other' headaches: Primary cough,
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4.3 Primary headache associated with sexual
activity
Biehl K, Evers S and Frese A. Comorbidity of migraine and
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Chakravarty A. Primary headaches associated with sexual activity
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Kumar KL and Reuler JB. Uncommon headaches: Diagnosis
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Lance JW. Headaches related to sexual activity. J Neurol
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Landtblom AM, Fridriksson S, Boivie J, et al. Sudden onset
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4.4 Primary thunderclap headache
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Chen SP, Fuh JL, Liang JF, et al. Recurrent primary thunderclap
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Dodick DW, Brown RD, Britton JW and Huston J.
Nonaneurysmal thunderclap headache with diffuse, multifocal,
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Garg RK. Recurrent thunderclap headache associated with
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Linn FHH, Rinkel GJE, Algra A and van Gijn J. Follow-up of
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4.5 Cold-stimulus headache
Bird N, MacGregor A andWilkinson MIP. Ice-cream headache –
Site, duration, and relationship to migraine. Headache 1992;
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Burkhart CG and Burkhart CN. Ice cream headaches with
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Drummond PD and Lance JW. Neurovascular disturbances in
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Fasano VA, Broggi G, Lo Russo G and Zeme S. Headache
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Kaczorowski Mand Kaczorowski J. Ice-cream evoked headaches
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Mattsson P. Headache caused by drinking cold water is common
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Raskin NH and Knittle SC. Ice cream headache and
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Selekler HM, Erdogan MS and Budak F. Prevalence and clinical
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in migraine and episodic tension-type headache patients.
Cephalalgia 2004; 24: 293–297.
4.6 External-pressure headache
Blau JN. Ponytail headache: A pure extracranial headache.
Headache 2004; 44: 411–413.
Krymchantowski AV. Headaches due to external compression.
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Pestronk A and Pestronk S. Goggle migraine. N Engl J Med
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4.7 Primary stabbing headache
Dangond F and Spierings EL. Idiopathic stabbing headaches
lasting a few seconds. Headache 1993; 33: 257–258.
Fuh JL, Kuo KH and Wang SJ: Primary stabbing headache in a
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Martins IP, Parreira E and Costa I. Extratrigeminal ice-pick
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Raskin NH and Schwartz RK. Icepick-like pain. Neurology 1980;
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Sjaastad O, Pettersen H and Bakketeig LS. The Va˚ ga˚ study;
epidemiology of headache I: The prevalence of ultrashort paroxysms.
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Sjaastad, O, Pettersen, H and Bakketeig, LS. Long-lasting cephalic
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Soriani S, Battistella PA, Arnaldi C, et al. Juvenile idiopathic
stabbing headache. Headache 1996; 36: 565–567.
4.8 Nummular headache
Cuadrado ML, Valle B, Ferna´ ndez de las Pen˜ as C, et al. Bifocal
nummular headache: The first three cases. Cephalalgia 2009;
29: 583–586.
Cuadrado ML, Valle B, Ferna´ ndez-de-las-Pen˜ as C, et al.
Pressure pain sensitivity of the head in patients with
nummular headache: A cartographic study. Cephalalgia 2010;
30: 200–206.
Ferna´ ndez-de-las Pen˜ as C, Cuadrado ML, Barriga FJ and Pareja
JA. Local decrease of pressure pain threshold in nummular
headache. Headache 2006; 46: 1195–1198.
Ferna´ ndez-de-las-Pen˜ as C, Cuadrado ML, Barriga FJ and Pareja
JA. Pericranial tenderness is not related to nummular headache.
Cephalalgia 2007; 27: 182–186.
Grosberg BM, Solomon S and Lipton RB. Nummular headache.
Curr Pain Headache Rep 2007; 11: 310–312.
Guerrero AL, Cortijo E, Herrero-Vela´ zquez S, et al.
Nummular headache with and without exacerbations:
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Moon J, Ahmed K and Garza I. Case series of sixteen patients
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Pareja JA, Caminero AB, Serra J, et al. Numular headache: A
coin-shaped cephalgia. Neurology 2002; 58: 1678–1679.
Pareja JA, Cuadrado ML, Ferna´ ndez de las Pen˜ as C, et al.
Nummular headache with trophic changes inside the painful
area. Cephalalgia 2008; 28: 186–190.
Pareja JA, Montojo T and Alvarez M. Nummular Headache
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International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 681
Pareja JA, Pareja J, Barriga FJ, et al. Nummular headache. A
prospective series of 14 new cases. Headache 2004; 44: 611–614.
Ruscheweyh R, Buchheister A, Gregor N, et al. Nummular headache:
Six new cases and lancinating pain attacks as possible
manifestation. Cephalalgia 2010; 30: 249–253.
4.9 Hypnic headache
Centonze V, D'Amico D, Usai S, et al. First Italian case of
hypnic headache, with literature review and discussion of
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Dodick DW. Polysomnography in hypnic headache syndrome.
Headache 2000; 40: 748–752.
Dodick DW, Jones JM and Capobianco DJ. Hypnic headache:
Another indomethacin-responsive headache syndrome?
Headache 2000; 40: 830–835.
Donnet A and Lante´ri-Minet M. A consecutive series of 22
cases of hypnic headache in France. Cephalalgia 2009; 29:
928–934.
Evers S and Goadsby PJ. Hypnic headache: Clinical features,
pathophysiology, and treatment. Neurology 2003; 60: 905–909.
Gil-Gouveia R and Goadsby PJ. Secondary 'hypnic headache'.
J Neurol 2007; 254: 646–654.
Holle D, Naegel S, Krebs S, et al. Hypothalamic gray matter
volume loss in hypnic headache. Ann Neurol 2011; 69: 533–539.
Holle D, Naegel S, Krebs S, et al. Clinical characteristics and
therapeutic options in hypnic headache. Cephalalgia 2010; 30:
1435–1442.
Holle D, Wessendorf TE, Zaremba S, et al. Serial polysomnography
in hypnic headache. Cephalalgia 2011; 31: 286–290.
Liang JF, Fuh JL, Yu HY, et al. Clinical features, polysomnography
and outcome in patients with hypnic headache.
Cephalalgia 2008; 28: 209–215.
Newman LC, Lipton RB and Solomon S. The hypnic headache
syndrome: A benign headache disorder of the elderly.
Neurology 1990; 40: 1904–1905.
Peres MF, Masruha MR, Zukerman E, et al. Potential therapeutic
use of melatonin in migraine and other headache disorders.
Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2006; 15: 367–375.
Raskin NH. The hypnic headache syndrome. Headache 1988; 28:
534–536.
4.10 New daily persistent headache
Bigal ME, Lipton RB, Tepper SJ, et al. Primary chronic daily
headache and its subtypes in adolescents and adults. Neurology
2004; 14: 843–847.
Bigal ME, Rapoport AM, Tepper SJ, et al. The classification of
chronic daily headache in adolescents – A comparison between
the second edition of the international classification of headache
disorders and alternative diagnostic criteria. Headache
2005; 45:582–589.
Castillo J, Munoz P, Guitera V and Pascual J. Epidemiology of
chronic daily headache in the general population. Headache
1999; 39: 190–196.
Chakravarty A. Chronic daily headache in children and adolescents:
A clinic based study from India. Cephalalgia 2005; 25:
795–800.
Donnet A and Levrier O. A consecutive series of ten cases of new
daily persistent headache: Clinical presentation and morphology
of the venous system. Neurology 2009; 72: A419.
Evans RW. New daily persistent headache. Curr Pain Headache
Rep 2003; 7: 303–307.
Evans RW and Rozen TD. Etiology and treatment of new daily
persistent headache. Headache 2001; 41: 830–832.
Goadsby PJ and Boes C. New daily persistent headache. J Neurol
Neurosurg Psychiat 2002; 72 Suppl 2: ii6-ii9.
Grande RB, Aaseth K, Lundqvist C, et al. Prevalence of new
daily persistent headache in the general population. The
Akershus study of chronic headache. Cephalalgia 2009; 29:
1149–1155.
Kung E, Tepper SJ, Rapoport AM, et al. New daily
persistent headache in the pediatric population. Cephalalgia
2009; 29: 17–22.
Li D and Rozen TD. The clinical characteristics of new daily
persistent headache. Cephalalgia 2002; 22: 66–69.
Mack KJ. New daily persistent headache in children and adults.
Curr Pain Headache Rep 2009; 13: 47–51.
Mack KJ. What incites new daily persistent headache in children?
Pediatr Neurol 2004; 31: 122–125.
Meineri P, Torre E, Rota E and Grasso E. New daily persistent
headache: Clinical and serological characteristics in a retrospective
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Peng KP, Fuh JL, Yuan HK, et al. New daily persistent headache:
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Peres MF, Lucchetti G, Mercante JP and Young WB. New daily
persistent headache and panic disorder. Cephalalgia 2011; 31:
250–253.
Prakash S and Shah ND. Postinfectious new daily persistent
headache may respond to intravenous methylprednisolone.
J Headache Pain 2010; 11: 59–66.
Robbins MS, Grosberg BM, Napchan U, et al. Clinical and
prognostic subforms of new daily-persistent headache.
Neurology 2010; 74: 1358–1364.
Rozen TD, Roth JM and Denenberg N. Cervical spine joint
hypermobility: A possible predisposing factor for new daily
persistent headache. Cephalalgia 2006; 26: 1182–1185.
Rozen T and Swidan SZ. Elevation of CSF tumor necrosis factor
alpha levels in new daily persistent headache and treatment
refractory chronic migraine. Headache 2007; 47: 1050–1055.
Santoni JR and Santoni-Williams CJ. Headache and painful lymphadenopathy
in extracranial or systemic infection: Etiology of
new daily persistent headaches. Intern Med 1993; 32: 530–532.
Silberstein SD, Lipton RB, Solomon S and Mathew NT.
Classification of daily and near daily headaches: Proposed revisions
to the IHS classification. Headache 1994; 34: 1–7.
Takase Y, Nakano M, Tatsumi C and Matsuyama T. Clinical
features, effectiveness of drug-based treatment, and prognosis
of new daily persistent headache (NDPH): 30 cases in Japan.
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Vanast WJ. New daily persistent headaches: Definition of a
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The switched-on headache. Neurology 2010; 74: 1338–1339.
International Headache Society 2013
682 Cephalalgia 33(9)
Part two
The secondary headaches
5. Headache attributed to trauma or injury to the head and/or neck
6. Headache attributed to cranial or cervical vascular disorder
7. Headache attributed to non-vascular intracranial disorder
8. Headache attributed to a substance or its withdrawal
9. Headache attributed to infection
10. Headache attributed to disorder of homoeostasis
11. Headache or facial pain attributed to disorder of cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or other
facial or cranial structure
12. Headache attributed to psychiatric disorder
ICHD-3 beta 683
Introduction to the secondary headaches
When a patient has headache for the first time, or a new
headache type, and at the same time develops a brain
tumour, it is straightforward to conclude that headache
is secondary to the tumour. Such patients shall be given
only one headache diagnosis – 7.4 Headache attributed
to intracranial neoplasia (or one of its subforms) – even
when the headache phenomenologically is migraine,
tension-type headache or cluster headache. In other
words, a de novo headache occurring with another disorder
recognized to be capable of causing it is always
diagnosed as secondary.
The situation is different when the patient has previously
had a type of primary headache that becomes
worse in close temporal relation to the occurrence of
another disorder. Three possible explanations for this
worsening exist: that it is coincidental; that it is an
aggravation of the primary headache, causally related
to the other disorder; that it represents a new headache,
again causally related to the other disorder. The rules
for attribution developed in ICHD-II allowed one or
two diagnoses in such circumstances, but relied on judgement.
They have been modified in ICHD-3 beta in
order to be less open to interpretation.
When a new headache occurs for the first time in close
temporal relation to another disorder that is known to
cause headache, or fulfils other criteria for causation by
that disorder, the new headache is coded as a secondary
headache attributed to the causative disorder. This
remains true even when the headache has the characteristics
of a primary headache (migraine, tension-type
headache, cluster headache or one of the other trigeminal
autonomic cephalalgias).
When a pre-existing primary headache becomes chronic
in close temporal relation to such a causative disorder,
both the primary and the secondary diagnoses should
be given. When a pre-existing primary headache is
made significantly worse (usually meaning a two-fold
or greater increase in frequency and/or severity) in close
temporal relation to such a causative disorder, both the
primary and the secondary headache diagnoses should
be given, provided that there is good evidence that the
disorder can cause headache.
ICHD-II standardized the format of the diagnostic criteria
for secondary headaches, but this was not without
problems. A revision was necessary, and this revision is
adopted in ICHD-3 beta:
General diagnostic criteria for secondary headaches:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Another disorder scientifically documented to be
able to cause headache has been diagnosed1
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following2:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the presumed causative disorder
2. one or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the presumed causative
disorder
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement of the presumed causative
disorder
3. headache has characteristics typical for the causative
disorder3
4. other evidence exists of causation4
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Notes:
1. As headache is extremely prevalent, it can occur
simultaneously with another disorder by chance
and without a causal relation. Therefore, a secondary
headache can be definitely diagnosed only when
solid evidence exists from published scientific studies
that the disorder specified in criterion B is capable
of causing headache. Scientific evidence can
come from large clinical studies observing close temporal
relationships between the disorder and headache
outcomes after treatment of the disorder, or
from smaller studies using advanced scanning methods,
blood tests or other paraclinical tests, even if
these are not readily available to the diagnosing
physician who will use these criteria. In other
words, study methods that are not useful in routine
use of the diagnostic criteria may nonetheless be
useful for establishing general causal relationships
as the basis of criterion B. Throughout ICHD-3
beta, however, diagnostic criteria restrict themselves
to information reasonably available to the diagnosing
physician in a typical clinical situation.
2. The general criteria require two separate evidential
features to be present, and allow up to four types of
evidence, as set out. Not all of these four types are
appropriate for all disorders, and not all four need
form part of the specific criteria for a particular
secondary headache when this is so. There are a
few secondary headaches for which evidence of causation
depends very heavily on onset in temporal
relation to the presumed cause. Examples are the
subtypes of 7.2 Headache attributed to low cerebrospinal
fluid pressure, which are usually orthostatic
but not invariably, so that this characteristic
International Headache Society 2013
684 Cephalalgia 33(9)
cannot be relied on as a diagnostic criterion. In
such cases, criterion D is of particular importance.
3. An example is very sudden (thunderclap) onset of
headache in 6.2.2 Headache attributed to nontraumatic
subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH). The
characteristics (if any) must be specified for each
secondary headache.
4. This is to be specified (if appropriate) for each secondary
headache. One example of this kind of
evidence is accordance between the site of the headache
and the location of a presumed causative disorder.
Another is variations in parallel between
headache features (such as intensity) and markers
of activity of the presumed causative disorder (e.g.
changes on neuroimaging, or in other laboratory
measures [such as erythrocyte sedimentation rate
in 6.4.1 Headache attributed to giant cell arteritis
(GCA)]).
International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 685
5. Headache attributed to trauma or injury
to the head and/or neck
5.1 Acute headache attributed to traumatic injury to
the head
5.1.1 Acute headache attributed to moderate or
severe traumatic injury to the head
5.1.2 Acute headache attributed to mild traumatic
injury to the head
5.2 Persistent headache attributed to traumatic injury
to the head
5.2.1 Persistent headache attributed to moderate
or severe traumatic injury to the head
5.2.2 Persistent headache attributed to mild traumatic
injury to the head
5.3 Acute headache attributed to whiplash
5.4 Persistent headache attributed to whiplash
5.5 Acute headache attributed to craniotomy
5.6 Persistent headache attributed to craniotomy
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a headache occurs for the first time in close temporal
relation to trauma or injury to the head and/or
neck, it is coded as a secondary headache attributed to
the trauma or injury. This remains true when the new
headache has the characteristics of any of the primary
headache disorders classified in Part one of ICHD-3
beta. When a pre-existing headache with the characteristics
of a primary headache disorder becomes chronic,
or is made significantly worse (usually meaning a twofold
or greater increase in frequency and/or severity), in
close temporal relation to such trauma or injury, both
the initial headache diagnosis and a diagnosis of 5.
Headache attributed to trauma or injury to the head
and/or neck (or one of its subtypes) should be given.
Introduction
The subtypes of 5. Headache attributed to trauma or
injury to the head and/or neck are among the most
common secondary headache disorders. During the
first 3 months from onset they are considered acute; if
they continue beyond that period they are designated
persistent. This time period is consistent with ICHD-II
diagnostic criteria, although the term persistent has
been adopted in place of chronic.
There are no specific headache features known to distinguish
the subtypes of 5. Headache attributed to trauma or
injury to the head and/or neck from other headache types;
most often these resemble tension-type headache or
migraine. Consequently their diagnosis is largely dependent
on the close temporal relation between the trauma
or injury and headache onset. Consistently with those of
ICHD-II, the diagnostic criteria of ICHD-3 beta for all
subtypes require that headache must be reported to have
developed within 7 days of trauma or injury, or within 7
days after regaining consciousness and/or the ability to
sense and report pain when these have been lost following
trauma or injury. Although this 7-day interval is
somewhat arbitrary, and although some experts argue
that headache may develop after a longer interval in a
minority of patients, there is not enough evidence at this
time to change this requirement.
Headache may occur as an isolated symptom following
trauma or injury or as one of a constellation of symptoms,
commonly including dizziness, fatigue, reduced
ability to concentrate, psychomotor slowing, mild
memory problems, insomnia, anxiety, personality
changes and irritability. When several of these symptoms
follow head injury, the patient may be considered
to have a post-concussion syndrome.
The pathogenesis of 5. Headache attributed to trauma or
injury to the head and/or neck is often unclear.
Numerous factors that may contribute to its development
include, but are not limited to, axonal injury,
alterations in cerebral metabolism, alterations in cerebral
haemodynamics, underlying genetic predisposition,
psychopathology and a patient's expectations of
developing headache after head injury. Recent research,
using advanced neuroimaging modalities, suggests a
potential for detecting brain structural abnormalities
following minor trauma that are not detectable through
conventional diagnostic tests. Post-traumatic sleep disturbances,
mood disturbances and psychosocial stressors
can plausibly influence the development and
perpetuation of headache. The overuse of abortive
headache medications may contribute to the persistence
of headache after head injury through the development
of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache. Clinicians must
consider this possibility whenever such headache persists
beyond the initial post-trauma phase.
Risk factors for the development of 5. Headache attributed
to trauma or injury to the head and/or neck may
include a previous history of headache, less severe
injury, female gender and the presence of comorbid
psychiatric disorders. The association between repetitive
head trauma and the development of headache
should be investigated further. The degree to which a
patient's expectation of headache following head injury
and litigation regarding such headache promote its
development and persistence is still widely debated.
The majority of evidence suggests that malingering is
a factor in only a small minority of patients. Those with
pending litigation and those without are similar regarding
headache characteristics, cognitive test results,
treatment responses and improvement in symptoms
over time. Furthermore, symptom resolution does not
International Headache Society 2013
686 Cephalalgia 33(9)
typically occur following legal settlements. In
Lithuania, for example, a country in which there is
little expectation of developing headache after head
injury, and a lack of insurance against personal
injury, rates of 5.2 Persistent headache attributed to
traumatic injury to the head are low.
5. Headache attributed to trauma or injury to the head
and/or neck is also reported in children, although less
often than in adults. The clinical presentations of the
subtypes are similar in children and adults, and the
diagnostic criteria in children are the same.
5.1 Acute headache attributed to traumatic injury to
the head
Coded elsewhere:
Trauma as a result of acceleration/deceleration movements
of the head, with flexion/extension of the neck, is
classified as whiplash. Acute headache attributed to
such trauma is coded as 5.3 Acute headache attributed
to whiplash. Acute headache attributed to surgical craniotomy
performed for reasons other than traumatic
head injury is coded as 5.5 Acute headache attributed
to craniotomy.
Description:
Headache of less than 3 months' duration caused by
traumatic injury to the head.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Traumatic injury to the head1 has occurred
C. Headache is reported to have developed within 7
days after one of the following:
1. the injury to the head
2. regaining of consciousness following the injury
to the head
3. discontinuation of medication(s) that impair
ability to sense or report headache following
the injury to the head
D. Either of the following:
1. headache has resolved within 3 months after the
injury to the head
2. headache has not yet resolved but 3 months have
not yet passed since the injury to the head
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. Traumatic injury to the head is defined as a structural
or functional injury resulting from the action
of external forces on the head. These include
striking the head with or the head striking an
object, penetration of the head by a foreign body,
forces generated from blasts or explosions, and
other forces yet to be defined.
Comment:
The stipulation that headache must be reported to have
developed within 7 days is somewhat arbitrary (see
Introduction). Compared with longer intervals, a 7-
day interval yields diagnostic criteria with higher specificity
for 5.1 Acute headache attributed to traumatic
injury to the head (i.e. stronger evidence of causation)
but a correlative loss of sensitivity. Further research is
needed into whether or not a different interval might be
more appropriate. In the meantime, Appendix criteria
for A5.1.1.1 Delayed-onset acute headache attributed to
moderate or severe traumatic injury to the head and
A5.1.2.1 Delayed-onset acute headache attributed to
mild traumatic injury to the head (qv) may be used
when the interval between injury and headache onset
is greater than 7 days.
5.1.1 Acute headache attributed to moderate or severe
traumatic injury to the head
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 5.1 Acute headache
attributed to traumatic injury to the head
B. Injury to the head associated with at least one of the
following:
1. loss of consciousness for >30 minutes
2. Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score <13
3. post-traumatic amnesia1 lasting >24 hours
4. alteration in level of awareness for >24 hours
5. imaging evidence of a traumatic head injury such
as intracranial haemorrhage and/or brain
contusion.
Note:
1. The duration of post-traumatic amnesia is defined
as the time between head injury and recovery of
memory of current events and those occurring in
the last 24 hours.
5.1.2 Acute post-traumatic headache attributed to mild
traumatic injury to the head
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 5.1 Acute headache
attributed to traumatic injury to the head
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B. Injury to the head fulfilling both of the following:
1. associated with none of the following:
a) loss of consciousness for >30 minutes
b) Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score <13
c) post-traumatic amnesia lasting >24 hours
d) altered level of awareness for >24 hours
e) imaging evidence of a traumatic head injury
such as intracranial haemorrhage and/or
brain contusion
2. associated, immediately following the head
injury, with one or more of the following symptoms
and/or signs:
a) transient confusion, disorientation or
impaired consciousness
b) loss of memory for events immediately before
or after the head injury
c) two or more other symptoms suggestive of
mild traumatic brain injury: nausea, vomiting,
visual disturbances, dizziness and/or vertigo,
impaired memory and/or concentration.
Comment:
The diagnostic criteria for mild traumatic injury to the
head and for moderate or severe traumatic injury to the
head allow for substantial variability in the severity of
head injury classified in each category. This has led
some experts to suggest inclusion of additional categories:
headache attributed to very mild traumatic
injury to the head and headache attributed to very
severe traumatic injury to the head. Although there is
insufficient evidence for adding these categories at present,
future studies should investigate the utility of
doing so.
5.2 Persistent headache attributed to traumatic injury to
the head
Coded elsewhere:
Trauma as a result of acceleration/deceleration movements
of the head, with flexion/extension of the neck, is
classified as whiplash. Persistent headache attributed to
such trauma is coded as 5.4 Persistent headache attributed
to whiplash. Persistent headache attributed to surgical
craniotomy performed for reasons other than
traumatic head injury is coded as 5.6 Persistent headache
attributed to craniotomy.
Description:
Headache of greater than 3 months' duration caused by
traumatic injury to the head.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Traumatic injury to the head1 has occurred
C. Headache is reported to have developed within
7 days after one of the following:
1. the injury to the head
2. regaining of consciousness following the injury
to the head
3. discontinuation of medication(s) that impair
ability to sense or report headache following
the injury to the head
D. Headache persists for >3 months after the injury to
the head
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. Traumatic injury to the head is defined as a structural
or functional injury resulting from the action
of external forces on the head. These include striking
the head with or the head striking an object,
penetration of the head by a foreign body, forces
generated from blasts or explosions, and other
forces yet to be defined.
Comments:
The stipulation that headache must be reported to have
developed within 7 days is somewhat arbitrary (see
Introduction). Compared with longer intervals, a 7-
day interval yields diagnostic criteria with higher specificity
for 5.2 Persistent headache attributed to traumatic
injury to the head (i.e. stronger evidence of causation)
but a correlative loss of sensitivity. Further research is
needed into whether or not a different interval might be
more appropriate. In the meantime, Appendix criteria
for A5.2.1.1 Delayed-onset persistent headache attributed
to moderate or severe traumatic injury to the head
and A5.2.2.1 Delayed-onset persistent headache attributed
to mild traumatic injury to the head (qv) may be used
when the interval between injury and headache onset is
greater than 7 days.
To be consistent with ICHD-II diagnostic criteria for
chronic post-traumatic headache and with the time interval
used in the diagnoses of other secondary headache
disorders, 3 months is the time interval after which
headache attributed to head injury is considered persistent.
Further research is needed to investigate whether
shorter or longer intervals may be more appropriately
adopted.
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688 Cephalalgia 33(9)
5.2.1 Persistent headache attributed to moderate or
severe traumatic injury to the head
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 5.2 Persistent headache
attributed to traumatic injury to the head
B. Injury to the head associated with at least one of the
following:
1. loss of consciousness for >30 minutes
2. Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score <13
3. post-traumatic amnesia1 lasting >24 hours
4. alteration in level of awareness for >24 hours
5. imaging evidence of a traumatic head injury such
as intracranial haemorrhage and/or brain
contusion.
Note:
1. The duration of post-traumatic amnesia is defined
as the time between head injury and recovery of
memory of current events and of those occurring
in the last 24 hours.
Comment:
When headache following head injury becomes persistent,
the possibility of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache
needs to be considered.
5.2.2 Persistent headache attributed to mild traumatic
injury to the head
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 5.2 Persistent headache
attributed to traumatic injury to the head
B. Head injury fulfilling both of the following:
1. associated with none of the following:
a) loss of consciousness for >30 minutes
b) Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score <13
c) post-traumatic amnesia lasting >24 hours
d) altered level of awareness for >24 hours
e) imaging evidence of a traumatic head injury
such as intracranial haemorrhage and/or
brain contusion
2. associated, immediately following the head
injury, with one or more of the following symptoms
and/or signs:
a) transient confusion, disorientation or
impaired consciousness
b) loss of memory for events immediately before
or after the head injury
c) two or more other symptoms suggestive of
mild traumatic brain injury: nausea, vomiting,
visual disturbances, dizziness and/or vertigo,
impaired memory and/or concentration.
Comment:
When headache following head injury becomes persistent,
the possibility of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache
needs to be considered.
5.3 Acute headache attributed to whiplash1
Description:
Headache of less than 3 months' duration caused by
whiplash.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Whiplash1, associated at the time with neck pain
and/or headache, has occurred
C. Headache has developed within 7 days after the
whiplash
D. Either of the following:
1. headache has resolved within 3 months after the
whiplash
2. headache has not yet resolved but 3 months have
not yet passed since the whiplash
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. Whiplash is defined as sudden and inadequately
restrained acceleration/deceleration movements of
the head with flexion/extension of the neck.
Whiplash may occur after either high or low
impact forces.
Comments:
Whiplash most commonly occurs in the context of a
motor vehicle accident.
5.3 Acute headache attributed to whiplash may occur as
an isolated symptom or with a constellation of other
symptoms that relate to the neck, as well as somatic
extracervical, neurosensory, behavioural, cognitive
and/or mood symptoms. Whiplash itself may be
classified according to the severity of the clinical presentation,
using a scheme such as that presented
by the Quebec Task Force on Whiplash-Associated
Disorders.
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5.4 Persistent headache attributed to whiplash
Description:
Headache of greater than 3 months' duration caused by
whiplash.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Whiplash1, associated at the time with neck pain
and/or headache, has occurred
C. Headache has developed within 7 days after the
whiplash
D. Headache persists for >3 months after the whiplash
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. Whiplash is defined as sudden and inadequately
restrained acceleration/deceleration movements of
the head with flexion/extension of the neck.
Whiplash may occur after either high or low
impact forces.
Comment:
When post-whiplash headache becomes persistent, the
possibility of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache needs to
be considered.
5.5 Acute headache attributed to craniotomy
Description:
Headache of less than 3 months' duration caused by
surgical craniotomy.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Surgical craniotomy1 has been performed
C. Headache is reported to have developed within 7
days after one of the following:
1. the craniotomy
2. regaining of consciousness following the
craniotomy
3. discontinuation of medication(s) that impair
ability to sense or report headache following
the craniotomy
D. Either of the following:
1. headache has resolved within 3 months after the
craniotomy
2. headache has not yet resolved but 3 months have
not yet passed since the craniotomy
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. When the craniotomy was performed following
head injury, code as 5.1.1 Acute headache attributed
to moderate or severe traumatic injury to the
head.
Comments:
5.5 Acute headache attributed to craniotomy may occur
in more than two-thirds of patients following surgical
craniotomy. In the majority of cases, it resolves within
the acute post-operative period. It is more common
after surgery of the skull base compared with other
locations. Although the pain of 5.5 Acute headache
attributed to craniotomy is often felt maximally at the
site of craniotomy, it may be more diffuse and resemble
tension-type headache or migraine.
Exclusion of other secondary headache disorders that
may occur following craniotomy is necessary prior to
assigning the diagnosis of 5.5 Acute headache attributed
to craniotomy. Although there are numerous potential
aetiologies of headache following craniotomy, considerations
should include cervicogenic headache (as a
result of positioning during surgery), headache from
cerebrospinal fluid leak, infections, hydrocephalus and
intracranial haemorrhage.
5.6 Persistent headache attributed to craniotomy
Description:
Headache of greater than 3 months' duration caused by
surgical craniotomy.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Surgical craniotomy1 has been performed
C. Headache is reported to have developed within 7
days after one of the following:
1. the craniotomy
2. regaining of consciousness following the
craniotomy
3. discontinuation of medication(s) that impairs
ability to sense or report headache following
the craniotomy
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690 Cephalalgia 33(9)
D. Headache persists for >3 months after the
craniotomy
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. When the craniotomy was performed following
head injury, code as 5.2.1 Persistent headache
attributed to moderate or severe traumatic injury to
the head.
Comments:
About a quarter of patients who develop 5.5
Acute headache attributed to craniotomy go on to
experience 5.6 Persistent headache attributed to
craniotomy.
When headache following craniotomy becomes persistent,
the possibility of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache
needs to be considered.
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6. Headache attributed to cranial or cervical
vascular disorder
6.1 Headache attributed to ischaemic stroke or transient
ischaemic attack
6.1.1 Headache attributed to ischaemic stroke (cerebral
infarction)
6.1.2 Headache attributed to transient ischaemic
attack (TIA)
6.2 Headache attributed to non-traumatic intracranial
haemorrhage
6.2.1 Headache attributed to non-traumatic intracerebral
haemorrhage
6.2.2 Headache attributed to non-traumatic subarachnoid
haemorrhage (SAH)
6.2.3 Headache attributed to non-traumatic acute
subdural haemorrhage (ASDH)
6.3 Headache attributed to unruptured vascular
malformation
6.3.1 Headache attributed to unruptured saccular
aneurysm
6.3.2 Headache attributed to arteriovenous malformation
(AVM)
6.3.3 Headache attributed to dural arteriovenous
fistula (DAVF)
6.3.4 Headache attributed to cavernous angioma
6.3.5 Headache attributed to encephalotrigeminal
or leptomeningeal angiomatosis (Sturge
Weber syndrome)
6.4 Headache attributed to arteritis
6.4.1 Headache attributed to giant cell arteritis
(GCA)
6.4.2 Headache attributed to primary angiitis of
the central nervous system (PACNS)
6.4.3 Headache attributed to secondary angiitis of
the central nervous system (SACNS)
6.5 Headache attributed to cervical carotid or vertebral
artery disorder
6.5.1 Headache or facial or neck pain attributed to
cervical carotid or vertebral artery dissection
6.5.2 Post-endarterectomy headache
6.5.3 Headache attributed to carotid or vertebral
angioplasty
6.6 Headache attributed to cerebral venous thrombosis
(CVT)
6.7 Headache attributed to other acute intracranial
arterial disorder
6.7.1 Headache attributed to an intracranial endovascular
procedure
6.7.2 Angiography headache
6.7.3 Headache attributed to reversible cerebral
vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS)
6.7.3.1 Headache probably attributed to reversible
cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome
(RCVS)
6.7.4 Headache attributed to intracranial arterial
dissection
6.8 Headache attributed to genetic vasculopathy
6.8.1 Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy
with Subcortical Infarcts and
Leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL)
6.8.2 Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic
Acidosis and Stroke-like episodes (MELAS)
6.8.3 Headache attributed to another genetic
vasculopathy
6.9 Headache attributed to pituitary apoplexy
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a headache occurs for the first time in close temporal
relation to a cranial or cervical vascular disorder,
it is coded as a secondary headache attributed to that
disorder. This remains true when the new headache has
the characteristics of any of the primary headache disorders
classified in Part one of ICHD-3 beta. When a
pre-existing headache with the characteristics of a primary
headache disorder becomes chronic, or is made
significantly worse (usually meaning a two-fold or
greater increase in frequency and/or severity), in close
temporal relation to a cranial or cervical vascular disorder,
both the initial headache diagnosis and a diagnosis
of 6. Headache attributed to cranial or cervical
vascular disorder (or one of its subtypes) should be
given, provided that there is good evidence that the
disorder can cause headache.
Introduction
The diagnosis of headache and its causal link is easy in
most of the vascular conditions listed below because the
headache presents both acutely and with neurological
signs and because it often remits rapidly. The close temporal
relationship between the headache and these neurological
signs is therefore crucial to establishing causation.
In many of these conditions, such as ischaemic or
haemorrhagic stroke, headache is overshadowed by
focal signs and/or disorders of consciousness. In
others, such as subarachnoid haemorrhage, headache
is usually the prominent symptom. In a number of
other conditions that can induce both headache and
stroke, such as dissections, cerebral venous thrombosis,
giant cell arteritis and central nervous system angiitis,
headache is often an initial warning symptom. It is
therefore crucial to recognize the association of headache
with these disorders in order to diagnose correctly
the underlying vascular disease and start appropriate
treatment as early as possible, thus preventing potentially
devastating neurological consequences.
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All of these conditions can occur in patients who
have previously suffered a primary headache of any
type. A clue that points to an underlying vascular condition
is the onset, usually sudden, of a new headache,
so far unknown to the patient. Whenever this occurs,
vascular conditions should urgently be looked for.
For headache attributed to any of the vascular disorders
listed here, the diagnostic criteria include whenever
possible:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A cranial or cervical vascular disorder known to be
able to cause headache has been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the cranial or cervical vascular
disorder
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the cranial or cervical
vascular disorder
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement of the cranial or cervical
vascular disorder
3. headache has characteristics typical for the cranial
or cervical vascular disorder
4. other evidence exists of causation
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
6.1 Headache attributed to ischaemic stroke or transient
ischaemic attack
6.1.1 Headache attributed to ischaemic stroke (cerebral
infarction)
Description:
Headache caused by ischaemic stroke, usually with
acute onset and associated with focal neurological
signs. It has a self-limited course, and is very rarely
the presenting or a prominent feature of ischaemic
stroke.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Acute ischaemic stroke has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least one
of the following:
1. headache has developed in very close temporal
relation to other symptoms and/or clinical signs
of ischaemic stroke, or has led to the diagnosis of
ischaemic stroke
2. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with stabilization or improvement of other
symptoms or clinical or radiological signs of
ischaemic stroke
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
6.1.1 Headache attributed to ischaemic stroke (cerebral
infarction) is accompanied by focal neurological signs
and/or alterations in consciousness, which in most cases
allows easy differentiation from the primary headaches.
It is usually of moderate intensity, and has no specific
characteristics. It can be bilateral or unilateral ipsilateral
to the stroke. Rarely, an acute ischaemic stroke,
notably a cerebellar infarction, can present with an isolated
sudden (even thunderclap) headache.
Headache accompanies ischaemic stroke in up to
one-third of cases; it is more frequent in basilar- than
in carotid-territory strokes. It is of little practical value
in establishing stroke aetiology except that headache is
very rarely associated with lacunar infarcts but extremely
common in acute arterial wall disorders such as
dissection or reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome.
In these latter conditions, headache may be
directly caused by the arterial wall lesions and may
precede ischaemic stroke.
6.1.2 Headache attributed to transient ischaemic attack
(TIA)
Description:
Headache caused by a transient ischaemic attack (TIA)
and accompanied by the sudden-onset transient focal
signs of a TIA. It lasts less than 24 hours.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Transient ischaemic attack (TIA) has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed simultaneously with
other symptoms and/or clinical signs of TIA
2. headache resolves within 24 hours
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
A TIA is a transient episode of neurological dysfunction
caused by focal brain or retinal ischaemia without
clinical, imaging or other evidence of acute cerebral or
retinal infarction. Symptoms of a TIA typically, but not
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invariably, last less than 1 hour. Although more
common with basilar- than carotid-territory TIA, headache
is very rarely a prominent symptom of TIA.
The differential diagnosis between 6.1.2 Headache
attributed to transient ischaemic attack and an attack
of 1.2 Migraine with aura may be particularly difficult.
The mode of onset is crucial: the focal deficit is typically
sudden in a TIA and more frequently progressive in a
migrainous aura. Furthermore, positive phenomena
(e.g. scintillating scotoma) are far more common in
migrainous aura than in TIA, whereas negative phenomena
are more usual in TIA.
The coincidence of an otherwise typical TIA and a
severe headache should prompt the search for some
arterial disorders that can directly induce severe headache
(arterial dissection, among others).
6.2 Headache attributed to non-traumatic intracranial
haemorrhage
Coded elsewhere:
Headache attributed to traumatic intracerebral and/or
subarachnoid haemorrhage or to traumatic intracerebral,
subdural or epidural haematoma is coded as 5.1.1
Acute headache attributed to moderate or severe traumatic
injury to the head or 5.2.1 Persistent headache
attributed to moderate or severe traumatic injury to the
head.
Description:
Headache caused by non-traumatic intracranial haemorrhage,
with, generally, sudden (even thunderclap)
onset. Depending on the type of haemorrhage, it may
be isolated or associated with focal neurological deficits.
6.2.1 Headache attributed to non-traumatic
intracerebral haemorrhage
Description:
Headache caused by non-traumatic intracerebral haemorrhage,
usually with acute onset and associated with
focal neurological signs. It can, rarely, be the presenting
and prominent feature of non-traumatic intracerebral
haemorrhage.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH)1 in the absence of
head trauma has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
ICH, or has led to the diagnosis of ICH
2. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with stabilization or improvement of other
symptoms or clinical or radiological signs of
ICH
3. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) sudden or thunderclap onset
b) maximal on the day of its onset
c) localized in accordance with the site of the
haemorrhage
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. Through usage, the term intracerebral is taken in
this context to include intracerebellar.
Comments:
6.2.1 Headache attributed to non-traumatic intracerebral
haemorrhage is more often a result of associated subarachnoid
blood and local compression than intracranial
hypertension. Headache is more usual and more
severe in haemorrhagic than in ischaemic stroke, and
6.2.1 Headache attributed to non-traumatic intracerebral
haemorrhage can occasionally present as thunderclap
headache.
The headache is usually overshadowed by focal deficits
or coma, but it can be the prominent early feature
of some intracerebral haemorrhages, notably cerebellar
haemorrhage, which may require emergency surgical
decompression.
6.2.2 Headache attributed to non-traumatic
subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH)
Description:
Headache caused by non-traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage
(SAH), typically severe and sudden, peaking
in seconds (thunderclap headache) or minutes. It can be
the sole symptom of SAH.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) in the absence
of head trauma has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal
relation to other symptoms and/or clinical
signs of SAH, or has led to the diagnosis of SAH
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2. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with stabilization or improvement of other
symptoms or clinical or radiological signs of
SAH
3. headache has sudden or thunderclap onset
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
SAH is the most common cause of persistent,
intense and incapacitating headache of abrupt onset
(thunderclap headache), and is a serious condition
(mortality rate is 40–50% and 10–20% of patients die
before arriving at hospital; 50% of survivors are left
disabled).
6.2.2 Headache attributed to non-traumatic subarachnoid
haemorrhage (SAH) may nonetheless be moderate
and without any associated signs. The abrupt onset is
the key feature. Any patient with headache of abrupt
onset or thunderclap headache should be evaluated for
SAH. Diagnosis is confirmed by non-contrastenhanced
CT scan, which has a sensitivity of 98% in
the first 12 hours after onset (dropping to 93% at 24
hours and 50% at 7 days). If CT results are non-diagnostic,
a lumbar puncture is essential. Xanthochromia
is present in 100% of cases with aneurysmal SAH when
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is collected between 12 hours
and 2 weeks after the onset of symptoms and analysed
spectrophotometrically. MRI is not indicated as an
initial diagnostic test for SAH; however, FLAIR and
gradient-echo T2-weighted images may be useful when
the CT is normal and the CSF abnormal.
Initial misdiagnosis occurs in one-quarter to onehalf
of patients; the most common specific misdiagnosis
is migraine, but often, in these cases, no cause is identified.
The most common reasons for misdiagnosis are
failure to obtain appropriate neuroimaging, or misinterpretation,
or failure to perform a lumbar puncture in
cases where this is required. Delayed diagnosis often
has a catastrophic outcome.
SAH is a neurointerventional emergency. After diagnosis
of SAH, the next urgent step is to identify a ruptured
aneurysm (80% of cases of spontaneous SAH
result from ruptured saccular aneurysms).
6.2.3 Headache attributed to non-traumatic acute
subdural haemorrhage (ASDH)
Description:
Headache caused by non-traumatic acute subdural haemorrhage
(ASDH), typically severe and sudden, peaking
in seconds (thunderclap headache) or minutes. It is
usually accompanied or rapidly followed by focal signs
and decrease in consciousness.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Acute subdural haemorrhage (ASDH) in the
absence of head trauma has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in very close temporal
relation to other symptoms and/or clinical signs
of ASDH, or has led to the diagnosis of ASDH
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of ASDH
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement of other symptoms or
clinical or radiological signs of ASDH
3. headache has either or both of the following two
characteristics:
a) sudden or thunderclap onset
b) localized in accordance with the site of the
haemorrhage
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Most cases of ASDH occur after head trauma and
should be coded accordingly. Non-traumatic ASDH
without other intracranial haemorrhage ('pure
ASDH') is rare and represents a life-threatening condition.
It is a neurosurgical emergency.
The bleeding may be from arterial or venous origin.
Reported causes include 'spontaneous' cortical artery
rupture, aneurysm rupture, arteriovenous malformations
and dural arteriovenous fistulae, tumours or
metastasis, coagulopathies, moya-moya disease, cerebral
venous thrombosis and intracranial hypotension.
Isolated cases or small series have mostly been reported
by neurosurgeons. Headache is described in 25–100%
of cases depending on the series and the underlying
cause. Isolated headache can be the presenting sign;
but usually it is associated or followed by a rapid neurological
deterioration.
6.3 Headache attributed to unruptured vascular
malformation
Coded elsewhere:
Headache attributed to ruptured vascular malformation
is coded as 6.2.1 Headache attributed to intracerebral
haemorrhage or 6.2.2 Headache attributed
to subarachnoid haemorrhage or, rarely, 6.2.3
Headache attributed to non traumatic acute subdural
haemorrhage.
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Description:
Headache secondary to an unruptured intracranial vascular
malformation (occurring without haemorrhage).
Depending on the type of malformation, the headache
may have a chronic course with recurrent attacks
mimicking episodic primary headaches, or an acute
and self-limited course.
6.3.1 Headache attributed to unruptured saccular
aneurysm
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. An unruptured saccular aneurysm has been
diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
unruptured saccular aneurysm, or has led to its
diagnosis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with other symptoms or clinical or radiological
signs of growth of the saccular aneurysm
b) headache has resolved after treatment of the
saccular aneurysm
3. either or both of the following:
a) headache has sudden or thunderclap onset
b) headache is associated with a painful IIIrd
nerve palsy
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and intracranial haemorrhage and reversible
cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome have been
excluded by appropriate investigations.
Comments:
Headache is reported by approximately one-fifth of
patients with unruptured cerebral aneurysm, but
whether this association is incidental or causal is an
unresolved issue.
6.3.1 Headache attributed to unruptured saccular
aneurysm usually has no specific features. On the
other hand, a new-onset headache can reveal a symptomatic
but unruptured saccular aneurysm. A classic variety
is acute IIIrd nerve palsy with retro-orbital pain and
a dilated pupil, indicating an aneurysm of the posterior
communicating cerebral artery or termination of the
carotid artery. Such painful IIIrd nerve palsy is an
emergency, signalling impending rupture or progressive
enlargement of the arterial malformation.
Several retrospective studies have shown that about
half of patients with an aneurysmal subarachnoid
haemorrhage reported the occurrence of a sudden and
severe headache within the 4 weeks prior to the diagnosis
of aneurysmal rupture. Setting aside the possibility
of memory biases, this suggests these headaches are
a result of sudden enlargement of the arterial malformation
('sentinel headache') or to mild subarachnoid
haemorrhage that is not diagnosed as such ('warning
leak'). Evidence for the existence of sentinel headaches
is poor. Moreover, the term warning leak should not be
used, because a leak indicates a subarachnoid haemorrhage.
Given that at least one in three patients with
aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage is initially misdiagnosed,
and given the risks of re-bleeding, patients
with sudden severe headaches should undergo complete
investigation, including cerebral imaging, CSF study
and cerebral angiography (MRA or CT angiography).
6.3.2 Headache attributed to arteriovenous
malformation (AVM)
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. An arteriovenous malformation (AVM) has been
diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
AVM, or has led to the discovery of an AVM
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the AVM
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement of the AVM
3. headache is localized to the site of the AVM
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and intracranial haemorrhage has been
excluded by appropriate investigations.
Comments:
Cases have been reported highlighting the association
of AVM with a variety of headaches such as 3.1 Cluster
headache, 3.2.2 Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania and
3.3.1 Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache
with conjunctival injection and tearing (SUNCT), but
these cases had atypical features. There is no good evidence
of a relationship between AVM and these primary
headache disorders.
1.2 Migraine with aura has been reported in up to
58% of women with AVM. A strong argument in
favour of a causal relationship is the overwhelming
correlation between the side of the headache, or of
the aura, and the side of the AVM. There is thus a
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strong suggestion that AVM can cause attacks of
migraine with aura (symptomatic migraine). Yet in a
large AVM series, presenting features frequently
included epilepsy or focal deficits with or without haemorrhage
and, much more rarely, migraine-like
symptoms.
6.3.3 Headache attributed to dural arteriovenous fistula
(DAVF)
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A dural arteriovenous fistula (DAVF) has been
diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
DAVF, or has led to the diagnosis of DAVF
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with other symptoms or clinical or radiological
signs of growth of the DAVF
b) headache has significantly improved after
treatment of the DAVF
3. at least one of the following:
a) headache is accompanied by pulsatile tinnitus
b) headache is accompanied by ophthalmoplegia
c) headache is both progressive and worse in the
morning and/or during coughing and/or
bending over
4. headache is localized to the site of the DAVF
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and intracerebral haemorrhage and cerebral
venous thrombosis have been excluded by appropriate
investigations.
Comment:
Studies devoted to 6.3.3 Headache attributed to dural
arteriovenous fistula are lacking. A painful pulsatile tinnitus
can be a presenting symptom, as well as headache
with features of intracranial hypertension as a result of
decrease in venous outflow and sometimes to sinus
thrombosis. Carotidocavernous fistulae may present
as painful ophthalmoplegia.
6.3.4 Headache attributed to cavernous angioma
Coded elsewhere:
Headache attributed to cerebral haemorrhage or seizure
secondary to cavernous angioma is coded as
6.2.1 Headache attributed to intracerebral haemorrhage
or 7.6 Headache attributed to epileptic seizure.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A cavernous angioma has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
cavernous angioma
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with other symptoms or clinical or radiological
signs of growth of the cavernous angioma
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved after removal of the cavernous
angioma
3. headache is localized to the site of the cavernous
angioma
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and intracerebral haemorrhage has been
excluded by appropriate investigations.
Comments:
Cavernous angiomas are increasingly recognized on
MRI. Isolated case reports suggest that some cavernous
angiomas may trigger SUNCT-like or migraine-like
attacks. However, there is still no good study devoted
to 6.3.4 Headache attributed to cavernous angioma.
In a series of 126 symptomatic patients with cavernous
angiomas and KRIT 1 mutations, only 4%
reported headache as a presenting symptom. On the
contrary, headache is commonly reported as a consequence
of cerebral haemorrhage or of seizures, which
are the two main manifestations of cavernous angiomas;
such headache should be coded to either of these
accordingly.
6.3.5 Headache attributed to encephalotrigeminal or
leptomeningeal angiomatosis (Sturge Weber syndrome)
Coded elsewhere:
Headache attributed to seizure secondary to Sturge
Weber syndrome is coded as 7.6 Headache attributed
to epileptic seizure.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Facial angioma is present, together with neuroimaging
evidence of meningeal angioma ipsilateral to it
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs
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and/or imaging evidence of the meningeal
angioma
2. headache has significantly worsened in
parallel with other symptoms or clinical or radiological
signs of growth of the meningeal
angioma
3. headache is migraine-like, either bilateral or
localized to the site of the angioma, and associated
with aura contralateral to the site of the
angioma
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
6.3.5 Headache attributed to encephalotrigeminal or leptomeningeal
angiomatosis (Sturge Weber syndrome) is
poorly documented. More than 90% of cases of Sturge
Weber syndrome have seizures, and half report postseizure
headaches, which should be coded accordingly.
Isolated reports suggest that encephalotrigeminal or leptomeningeal
angiomatosis may be a cause of symptomatic
migraine, particularly of attacks with prolonged
auras (possibly related to chronic oligaemia).
6.4 Headache attributed to arteritis
Description:
Headache caused by and symptomatic of an inflammation
of cervical, cranial and/or brain arteries. Headache
may be the sole symptom of arteritis.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Arteritis has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of onset of
arteritis, or has led to the diagnosis of arteritis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of arteritis
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement of arteritis
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
6.4.1 Headache attributed to giant cell arteritis (GCA)
Previously used term:
Headache attributed to temporal arteritis.
Description:
Headache caused by and symptomatic of giant cell
arteritis. Headache may be the sole symptom of giant
cell arteritis, a disease most conspicuously associated
with headache, which is a result of inflammation of
cranial arteries, especially branches of the external carotid
artery. The features of the headache are variable.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Giant cell arteritis (GCA) has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical or biological
signs of onset of GCA, or has led to the
diagnosis of GCA
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of GCA
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved within 3 days of high-dose steroid
treatment
3. headache is associated with scalp tenderness
and/or jaw claudication
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Of all arteritides and collagen vascular diseases, giant
cell arteritis is the disease most conspicuously associated
with headache, which is a result of inflammation
of cranial arteries, especially branches of the
external carotid artery. The variability in the features
of 6.4.1 Headache attributed to giant cell arteritis and
in the other symptoms of GCA (polymyalgia rheumatica,
jaw claudication) are such that any recent persisting
headache in a patient over 60 years of age
should suggest GCA and lead to appropriate
investigations.
Recent repeated attacks of amaurosis fugax associated
with headache are strongly suggestive of GCA
and should prompt urgent investigations. The major
risk is of blindness as a result of anterior ischaemic
optic neuropathy, which can be prevented by immediate
steroid treatment; the time interval between visual
loss in one eye and in the other is usually less than 1
week. Patients with GCA are also at risk of cerebral
ischaemic events and of dementia.
Histological diagnosis can be difficult, because the
temporal artery may appear uninvolved in some areas
(skip lesions), pointing to the necessity of serial
sectioning.
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6.4.2 Headache attributed to primary angiitis of the central
nervous system (PACNS)
Previously used term:
Headache attributed to isolated CNS angiitis or granulomatous
CNS angiitis.
Description:
Headache caused by and symptomatic of primary
angiitis of the central nervous system. Headache is the
dominant symptom of this disorder, but lacks specific
features.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system
(PACNS) has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
onset of PACNS, or has led to the diagnosis of
PACNS
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of PACNS
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in PACNS resulting
from steroid and/or immunosuppressive
treatment
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and CNS infection, CNS neoplasia and reversible
cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome have been
excluded by appropriate investigations.
Comments:
Headache is the dominant symptom in CNS angiitis
(either primary or secondary). It is present in 50–80%
of cases according to the diagnostic methods used,
angiography and histology, respectively. Nevertheless
it has no specific features and is therefore of little
diagnostic value until other signs are present, such
as focal deficits, seizures, altered cognition or disorders
of consciousness. However, the absence of both
headache and CSF pleocytosis makes CNS angiitis
unlikely.
The pathogenesis of 6.4.2 Headache attributed to
primary angiitis of the central nervous system is
multifactorial: inflammation, stroke (ischaemic or
haemorrhagic), raised intracranial pressure and/or subarachnoid
haemorrhage.
The effect of treatment is far less dramatic than in
6.4.1 Headache attributed to giant cell arteritis.
Histologically proven primary CNS angiitis remains a
serious and not infrequently lethal condition.
6.4.3 Headache attributed to secondary angiitis of the
central nervous system (SACNS)
Description:
Headache caused by and symptomatic of secondary
angiitis of the central nervous system. Headache is the
dominant symptom of this disorder, but lacks specific
features.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Secondary angiitis of the central nervous system
(SACNS) (angiitis of the CNS in the presence of
systemic angiitis) has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
onset of SACNS
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the systemic angiitis
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the systemic angiitis
resulting from steroid and/or immunosuppressive
treatment
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Headache is the dominant symptom in CNS angiitis
(either primary or secondary). It is present in 50–80%
of cases according to the diagnostic methods used,
angiography and histology, respectively. Nevertheless
it has no specific features and is therefore of little
diagnostic value until other signs are present such as
focal deficits, seizures, altered cognition or disorders
of consciousness. However, the absence of both headache
and CSF pleocytosis makes CNS angiitis
unlikely.
The difficulty here is two-fold: 1) diagnosing CNS
angiitis in a patient known to have one of the many
conditions that can cause angiitis; 2) finding the underlying
condition (inflammatory, infectious, malignant,
toxic) in a patient presenting with CNS angiitis.
The pathogenesis of 6.4.3 Headache attributed to secondary
angiitis of the central nervous system is
multifactorial: inflammation, stroke (ischaemic or haemorrhagic),
raised intracranial pressure and/or subarachnoid
haemorrhage.
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6.5 Headache attributed to cervical carotid or vertebral
artery disorder
Description:
Headache and/or pain in the face and/or neck caused
by non-inflammatory lesions affecting the cervical carotid
and/or vertebral arteries. The pain generally has a
sudden (even thunderclap) onset. It can remain isolated
or be a warning symptom preceding the focal deficits of
ischaemic stroke.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache and/or facial or neck pain fulfilling
criterion C
B. A cervical artery lesion has been demonstrated, or a
surgical or radiological intervention has been performed
on a cervical artery
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. pain has developed in close temporal relation to
other local signs of cervical artery disorder, or has
led to the diagnosis of cervical artery disorder
2. either or both of the following:
a) pain has significantly worsened in parallel
with other signs of the cervical artery lesion
b) pain has significantly improved or resolved
within 1 month of its onset
3. pain is unilateral and ipsilateral to the affected
cervical artery
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
6.5.1 Headache or facial or neck pain attributed to
cervical arterial dissection
Description:
Headache and/or pain in the face and/or neck caused
by dissection of a cervical carotid or vertebral artery.
The pain is usually ipsilateral to the dissected vessel and
generally has a sudden (even thunderclap) onset. It can
remain isolated or be a warning symptom preceding
ischaemic stroke.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache and/or facial or neck pain fulfilling
criterion C
B. Cervical carotid or vertebral dissection has been
diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. pain has developed in close temporal relation to
other local signs of cervical artery dissection, or
has led to the diagnosis of cervical artery
dissection
2. either or both of the following:
a) pain has significantly worsened in parallel
with other signs of the cervical artery lesion
b) pain has significantly improved or resolved
within 1 month of its onset
3. either or both of the following:
a) pain is severe and continuous for days or
longer
b) pain precedes signs of acute retinal and/or
cerebral ischaemia
4. pain is unilateral and ipsilateral to the affected
cervical artery
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Headache with or without neck pain can be the only
manifestation of cervical artery dissection. It is by far
the most frequent symptom (55–100% of cases), and
the most frequent inaugural symptom (33–86% of
cases), of this disorder.
6.5.1 Headache or facial or neck pain attributed to
cervical arterial dissection is usually unilateral (ipsilateral
to the dissected artery), severe and persistent (for
a mean of 4 days). However, it has no constant specific
pattern and it can sometimes be very misleading,
mimicking other headaches such as 1. Migraine, 3.1
Cluster headache or 4.4 Primary thunderclap headache.
Associated signs (of cerebral or retinal ischaemia and
local signs) are common: a painful Horner's syndrome,
painful tinnitus of sudden onset or painful
XIIth nerve palsy are highly suggestive of carotid
artery dissection.
Cervical artery dissection may be associated with
intracranial artery dissection, which is a potential
cause of subarachnoid haemorrhage. 6.7.4
Headache attributed to intracranial arterial dissection
may be present in addition to 6.5.1 Headache or
facial or neck pain attributed to cervical arterial
dissection.
6.5.1 Headache or facial or neck pain attributed to
cervical arterial dissection usually precedes the onset of
ischaemic signs, and therefore requires early diagnosis
and treatment. Diagnosis is based on cervical MRI
with fat suppression, Duplex scanning, MRA and/or
CTA and, in doubtful cases, conventional angiography.
Several of these investigations are commonly
needed as any of them can be normal. There have
been no randomized trials of treatment, but there is
a consensus in favour of heparin followed by warfarin
for 3–6 months according to the quality of the arterial
recovery.
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6.5.2 Post-endarterectomy headache
Description:
Headache caused by the surgical procedure of carotid
endarterectomy. Pain can also involve the neck and face.
It can remain isolated or be a warning symptom preceding
the focal deficits of (mostly haemorrhagic) stroke.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Carotid endarterectomy has been performed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache develops within 1 week of carotid
endarterectomy
2. headache resolves within 1 month after carotid
endarterectomy
3. headache is unilateral, on the side of the carotid
endarterectomy, and has one of the following
three characteristics:
a) diffuse mild pain
b) cluster headache-like pain occurring once or
twice a day in attacks lasting 2–3 hours
c) pulsating severe pain
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and arterial dissection has been excluded by
appropriate investigations.
Comment:
Three subforms of 6.5.2 Post-endarterectomy headache
have been described (but are not separately coded). The
most frequent (up to 60% of cases) is a diffuse, mild
isolated headache occurring in the first few days after
surgery. It is a benign self-limiting condition. The
second subform (reported in up to 38% of cases) is a
unilateral cluster headache-like pain with attacks, lasting
2–3 hours, occurring once or twice a day. It resolves
in about 2 weeks. The third subform is part of the rare
hyperperfusion syndrome, with a unilateral pulsating
and severe pain occurring 3 days after surgery. It
often precedes a rise in blood pressure and the onset
of seizures or neurological deficits on or about the
seventh day. Urgent treatment is required, as these
symptoms can herald cerebral haemorrhage.
6.5.3 Headache attributed to carotid or vertebral
angioplasty
Description:
Headache caused by the surgical procedure of cervical
angioplasty. Pain can also involve the neck and face. It
can remain isolated or be a warning symptom preceding
the focal deficits of (mostly haemorrhagic) stroke.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache, fulfilling criterion C
B. Carotid or vertebral angioplasty has been
performed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 1 week of the
angioplasty
2. headache has resolved within 1 month after the
angioplasty
3. headache is on the same side as the angioplasty
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and arterial dissection has been excluded by
appropriate investigations.
Comments:
Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) and
stenting versus surgery are presently undergoing randomized
trials. Data on headache are still scarce, and
headache is not mentioned in large series of carotid
PTA. In a small series of 53 patients, cervical pain
occurred during balloon inflation in one-half of
patients and head pain in one-third, mostly disappearing
within seconds of balloon deflation.
6.5.3 Headache attributed to carotid or vertebral
angioplasty has been reported as part of the rare hyperperfusion
syndrome.
6.6 Headache attributed to cerebral venous thrombosis
(CVT)
Description:
Headache caused by cerebral venous thrombosis. It has
no specific characteristics: it is most often diffuse, progressive
and severe, but can be unilateral and
sudden (even thunderclap), or mild, and sometimes is
migraine-like.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache, fulfilling criterion C
B. Cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT) has been
diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
CVT, or has led to the discovery of CVT
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with clinical or radiological signs of extension
of the CVT
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b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved after improvement of the CVT
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Headache is by far the most frequent symptom of
cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT), present in 80–
90% of cases, and also the most frequent inaugural
symptom. 6.6 Headache attributed to cerebral venous
thrombosis has no specific characteristics, but most
often is diffuse, progressive and severe, and associated
with other signs of intracranial hypertension. It can
also be unilateral and sudden, and sometimes very
misleading, mimicking 1. Migraine, 4.4 Primary thunderclap
headache, 7.2 Headache attributed to low cerebrospinal
fluid pressure or 6.2.2 Headache attributed to
non-traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage (CVT can be
a cause of SAH).
Headache can be the only manifestation of CVT but,
in over 90% of cases, it is associated with focal signs
(neurological deficits or seizures) and/or signs of intracranial
hypertension, subacute encephalopathy or
cavernous sinus syndrome.
Given the absence of specific characteristics of 6.6
Headache attributed to cerebral venous thrombosis, any
recent persisting headache should raise suspicion, particularly
in the presence of an underlying prothrombotic
condition. Diagnosis is based on neuroimaging
(MRI with T2*-weighted images plus MRA, or CT
scan plus CT angiography, and intra-arterial angiography
in doubtful cases). Treatment should be started as
early as possible and includes symptomatic treatment,
heparin followed by at least 6 months of oral anticoagulation
and, whenever indicated, treatment of the
underlying cause.
6.7 Headache attributed to other acute intracranial arterial
disorder
6.7.1 Headache attributed to an intracranial
endovascular procedure
Description:
Unilateral headache caused directly by an intracranial
endovascular procedure, ipsilateral to the procedure
and lasting less than 24 hours.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Intracranial angioplasty or embolization has been
performed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within seconds of the
procedure
2. headache has resolved within 24 hours after the
end of the procedure
3. headache is severe, unilateral and ipsilateral to
the procedure
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and arterial dissection has been excluded by
appropriate investigations.
Comment:
A very specific subform of 6.7.1 Headache attributed to
an intracranial endovascular procedure has been
reported after balloon inflation or embolization of an
AVM or aneurysm. It is a severe pain of abrupt onset,
localized in a specific area according to the artery
involved, occurring within a few seconds of the procedure
and disappearing rapidly.
6.7.2 Angiography headache
Description:
Headache caused directly by cerebral angiography,
either diffuse, burning and severe or, in people with
migraine, with the clinical features of a migraine attack.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Intra-arterial carotid or vertebral angiography has
been performed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed during the angiography
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after the
end of the angiography
3. headache is either of the following:
a) diffuse, burning and severe
b) in a patient with migraine, having the features
of 1.1 Migraine without aura or 1.2 Migraine
with aura
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Intracarotid or intravertebral injection of contrast
induces a diffuse severe headache with a burning sensation,
which resolves spontaneously. It can also trigger a
migraine attack in a person who has 1. Migraine. In the
latter case, the patient should have both diagnoses: the
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appropriate subtype of 1. Migraine and 6.7.2
Angiography headache.
Contrast angiography is contraindicated in patients
affected by any subform of 1.2.3 Hemiplegic migraine
because it may trigger a life-threatening attack, with
prolonged hemiplegia and coma.
6.7.3 Headache attributed to reversible cerebral
vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS)
Description:
Headache caused by reversible cerebral vasoconstriction
syndrome, typically thunderclap headache recurring
over 1–2 weeks, often triggered by sexual
activity, exertion, Valsalva manoeuvres and/or emotion.
Headache can remain the sole symptom of RCVS.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome
(RCVS) has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least one
of the following:
1. headache, with or without focal deficits and/or
seizures, has led to angiography (with 'strings
and beads' appearance) and diagnosis of RCVS
2. headache has either or both of the following
characteristics:
a) recurrent during 1 month, and with thunderclap
onset
b) triggered by sexual activity, exertion, Valsalva
manoeuvres, emotion, bathing and/or
showering
3. no new significant headache occurs >1 month
after onset
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage
has been excluded by appropriate investigations.
Comments:
Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS)
is a poorly understood condition, characterized clinically
by severe diffuse headaches that typically are of
the thunderclap type, mimicking aneurysmal SAH.
RCVS is the most frequent cause of thunderclap headache
recurring over a few days or weeks. 6.7.3
Headache attributed to reversible cerebral vasoconstriction
syndrome may rarely have other modes of onset:
progressing rapidly over hours or more slowly over
days. Headache is often the only symptom of RCVS,
but the condition can be associated with fluctuating
focal neurological deficits and sometimes seizures.
Angiography is, by definition, abnormal, with alternating
segments of arterial constriction and dilatation
('strings and beads' appearance). However, MR-, CTand
even catheter-angiography can be normal during
the first week after clinical onset. Patients with recurring
thunderclap headache and a normal angiogram,
but fulfilling all other criteria for RCVS, should be
considered as having 6.7.3.1 Headache probably attributed
to reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome.
Brain MRI is abnormal in 30-80% of cases, showing
various patterns of lesions including intracranial haemorrhages
(convexity subarachnoid, intracerebral and/
or subdural), cerebral infarctions and/or cerebral
oedema corresponding to 'posterior reversible encephalopathy
syndrome'.
At least half of cases of RCVS are secondary, mainly
postpartum and/or following exposure to vasoactive
substances including illicit drugs, alpha-sympathomimetics
and serotoninergic drugs. The disease is self-limiting
in 1–3 months, with resolution of the headache
and disappearance of the arterial abnormalities (hence
'reversible'). However, strokes as a result of RCVS can
produce permanent impairment.
6.7.3.1 Headache probably attributed to reversible
cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS)
Description:
Headache typical for reversible cerebral vasoconstriction
syndrome (RCVS), namely thunderclap headache
recurring over 1–2 weeks and triggered by sexual activity,
exertion, Valsalva manoeuvres and/or emotion, but
the intracranial arterial beading typical of RCVS has
not been demonstrated by cerebral angiography.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome
(RCVS) is suspected, but cerebral angiography is
normal
C. Probability of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. at least two headaches within 1 month, with all
three of the following characteristics:
a) thunderclap onset, and peaking in <1 minute
b) severe intensity
c) lasting 5 minutes
2. at least one thunderclap headache has been triggered
by one of the following:
a) sexual activity (just before or at orgasm)
b) exertion
c) Valsalva-like manoeuvre
d) emotion
e) bathing and/or showering
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f) bending
3. no new thunderclap or other significant headache
occurs >1 month after onset
D. Not fulfilling ICHD-3 criteria for any other headache
disorder
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis, and aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage
has been excluded by appropriate
investigations.
Comment:
Large series of patients with confirmed RCVS have
shown that up to 75% of patients presented with isolated
headaches. The arterial abnormalities of RCVS
may be difficult to demonstrate. Some RCVS cases
need repeated CT- or MR-angiography 2-3 weeks
after headache onset and others need invasive conventional
angiography to be detected. In patients who have
recurrent, triggered thunderclap headaches typical for
RCVS over a period of less than 1 month and normal
initial cerebral angiography, and in whom another
cause of the headaches has been excluded by appropriate
investigations, a diagnosis of 6.7.3.1 Headache probably
attributed to reversible cerebral vasoconstriction
syndrome (RCVS) can be made.
6.7.4 Headache attributed to intracranial arterial
dissection
Description:
Headache caused by dissection of an intracranial
artery. The pain is mostly unilateral, ipsilateral to the
dissected vessel, and generally has a sudden (even thunderclap)
onset. It can remain isolated or be a warning
symptom preceding (mostly haemorrhagic) stroke.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. An intracranial arterial dissection has been
diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
intracranial dissection, or has led to the diagnosis
of intracranial dissection
2. headache resolves within 1 month of its onset
3. headache has either or both of the following
characteristics:
a) sudden or thunderclap onset
b) severe intensity
4. headache is unilateral and ipsilateral to the
dissection
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Dissection can affect any intracranial artery and may
induce ischaemic infarcts, compression of adjacent structures
or intracranial haemorrhages (subarachnoid or intracerebral).
Acute headache is often the presenting symptom
and can be the sole symptom of this disorder.
6.8 Headache attributed to genetic vasculopathy
Description:
Headache occurring as part of the phenotypic spectrum
of the genetic cerebral vasculopathies, mostly manifesting
as recurrent attacks of headache, which may have
the features of migraine with or without aura. Attacks
can recur for years, and are usually associated from
onset, or after a variable delay, with other manifestations
of the causative mutation.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent attacks of headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A genetic vasculopathy has been diagnosed by
appropriate genetic testing
C. Headache is either:
1. migraine-like
2. the presenting symptom of stroke-like episodes
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
6.8.1 Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy with
Subcortical Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy
(CADASIL)
Description:
An autosomal dominant (with some sporadic cases)
small-artery disease of the brain characterized clinically
by recurrent small deep infarcts, subcortical dementia,
mood disturbances and, in one-third of cases, by
migraine with aura (which is usually the first symptom
of the disease).
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent attacks of migraine with typical, hemiplegic
or prolonged aura, fulfilling criterion C
B. Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy with
Subcortical Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy
(CADASIL) has been demonstrated by genetic testing
for NOTCH-3 mutations and/or skin biopsy evidence
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C. Either or both of the following:
1. migraine with aura was the earliest clinical manifestation
of CADASIL
2. attacks of migraine with aura improve or cease
when other manifestations of CADASIL (e.g.
ischaemic stroke, mood disturbances and/or
cognitive dysfunction) appear and worsen
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
CADASIL is an autosomal dominant disease, with
some sporadic cases, involving the smooth muscle
cells in the media of small arteries of the brain. It is a
result of mutations of the NOTCH-3 gene; the diagnosis
is made by screening for NOTCH-3 mutations or by
a simple skin biopsy with immunostaining of NOTCH-
3 antibodies.
CADASIL is characterized clinically by recurrent
small deep infarcts, subcortical dementia, mood disturbances
and, in one-third of cases, by migraine with
aura. In such cases, this is usually the first symptom
of the disease, appearing at a mean age of 30 years,
some 15 years before ischaemic strokes and 20–30
years before death. Migraine attacks are typical of 1.2
Migraine with aura except for an unusual frequency of
prolonged aura.
MRI is always abnormal, with striking white matter
changes on T2-weighted images.
6.8.2 Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic Acidosis
and Stroke-like episodes (MELAS)
Description:
A genetically heterogeneous mitochondrial disorder
with a variable clinical phenotype, including features
of central nervous system involvement (seizures, hemiparesis,
hemianopia, cortical blindness, sensorineural
deafness and/or episodic vomiting) and, frequently,
headache, which is either recurrent in migraine-like
attacks or a presenting symptom of stroke-like
episodes.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent attacks of headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A mitochondrial genetic abnormality associated
with MELAS has been demonstrated
C. Either or both of the following:
1. recurrent migraine attacks with or without aura
2. acute headache preceding focal neurological deficits
and/or seizures
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
MELAS syndrome, comprising mitochondrial myopathy,
encephalopathy, lactic acidosis and stroke-like
episodes, is a genetically heterogeneous mitochondrial
disorder with a variable clinical phenotype. The disorder
is accompanied by features of central nervous
system involvement, including seizures, hemiparesis,
hemianopia, cortical blindness, sensorineural deafness
and episodic vomiting. Headache is frequent in
MELAS, either as recurrent migraine-like attacks or
as the presenting symptom of stroke-like episodes.
The high frequency of migraine-like attacks as part
of MELAS has led to the hypothesis that mitochondrial
mutations may play a role in migraine with
aura, but the 3243 mutation was not detected in
two groups of subjects with 1.2 Migraine with aura.
Other yet-undetected mutations may play a role in
both migraine and ischaemic stroke, as migraine
attacks, mostly with aura, also occur in other mitochondrial
disorders.
6.8.3 Headache attributed to other genetic vasculopathy
Description:
Migraine with or without aura occurring as part of the
phenotypic spectrum of a genetic vasculopathy other
than those described above.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent attacks of migraine with or without aura,
fulfilling criterion C
B. A genetic vasculopathy has been demonstrated by
appropriate genetic testing
C. Migraine attacks are understood to be part of the
syndrome associated with the genetic vasculopathy
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Recurrent migraine attacks have been reported as part
of the clinical spectrum of the autosomal dominant
disorder, retinal vasculopathy with cerebral leukodystrophy
(RVCL), which is caused by TREX1
mutations, and of hereditary infantile hemiparesis,
retinal arterial tortuosity and leukoencephalopathy
(HIHRATL), a condition occurring as a result of
COL4A1 mutations. Only a few families with either
disorder have been reported. Because of the presence
of other severe manifestations, migraine has not been
systematically investigated in these pedigrees. It
appears that RVCL was mainly associated with attacks
of 1.1 Migraine without aura and HIHRATL with
attacks of 1.2 Migraine with aura.
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6.9 Headache attributed to pituitary apoplexy
Description:
Headache caused by pituitary apoplexy, usually with
sudden (even thunderclap) onset and severe intensity,
and accompanied from onset or later by visual symptoms
and/or hypopituitarism.
.Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Acute haemorrhagic pituitary infarction has been
diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
pituitary apoplexy, or has led to the diagnosis of
pituitary apoplexy
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with other symptoms and/or clinical signs
of pituitary apoplexy
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with other symptoms and/or clinical signs
of improvement of pituitary apoplexy
3. headache is severe and of sudden or thunderclap
onset
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The rare clinical syndrome of pituitary apoplexy is an
acute, life-threatening condition. It is one of the causes
of thunderclap headache. Most cases occur as the first
presentation of rapid enlargement of non-functioning
pituitary macroadenomas as a result of haemorrhage
and/or infarction. It is one of the causes of nonaneurysmal
subarachnoid haemorrhage.
MRI is more sensitive than CT scan for detecting
intrasellar pathology.
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Seymour JJ, Moscati RM and Jehle DV. Response of headaches
to non-narcotic analgesics resulting in missed intracranial
hemorrhage. Am J Emerg Med 1995; 13: 43–45.
Sidman R, Vconnolly E and Lemke T. Subarachnoid hemorrhage
diagnosis: Lumbar puncture is still needed when the computed
tomography scan is normal. Acad Emerg Med 1996; 3: 827–831.
Van der Wee N, Rinkel GJE, Hasan D and van Gijn J. Detection
of subarachnoid hemorrhage on early CT: is lumbar puncture
still needed after a negative scan? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat
1995; 58: 357–359.
Verweij RD, Wijdicks EFM and van Gijn J. Warning headache
in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A case control study.
Arch Neurol 1988; 45: 1019–1020.
Weir B. Diagnostic aspects of SAH. In: Weir B. Subarachnoid
hemorrhage: causes and cures. New York: Oxford University
Press 1998, 144–176.
6.2.3 Headache attributed to non-traumatic acute
subdural haemorrhage (ASDH)
Chhiber SS and Singh JP. Acute spontaneous subdural hematoma
of arterial origin: A report of four cases and review of
literature. Neurol India 2010; 58: 654–658.
Depreitere B, Van Calenbergh F and van Loon J. A clinical
comparison of non-traumatic acute subdural haematomas
either related to coagulopathy or of arterial origin without
coagulopathy. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2003; 145: 541–546.
Koerbel A, Ernemann U and Freudenstein D. Acute subdural
hematoma without subarachnoid hemorrhage caused by rupture
of internal carotid artery bifurcation aneurysm: Case
report and review of literature. Br J Radiol 2005; 78: 646–650.
Missori P, Fenga L, Maraglino C, et al. Spontaneous acute subdural
hematomas. A clinical comparison with traumatic acute
subdural hematomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2000; 142: 697–
701.
de Noronha RJ, Sharrack B, Hadjivassiliou M and Romanowski
CA. Subdural haematoma: a potentially serious consequence
of spontaneous intracranial hypotension. J Neurol Neurosurg
Psychiatry 2003; 74: 752–755.
Ogawa K, Oishi M, Mizutani T, et al. Dural arteriovenous fistula
on the convexity presenting with pure acute subdural hematoma.
Acta Neurol Belg 2010; 110: 190–192.
Takahashi S, Shinoda J and Hayashi T. Cerebral Venous Sinus
Thrombosis in an Adult Patient Presenting as Headache and
Acute Subdural Hematoma. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2010; 21:
338–340.
6.3.1 Headache attributed to unruptured saccular
aneurysm
Byruma EP, McGregor JM and Christoforidisa GA.
Thunderclap headache without subarachnoid hemorrhage
associated with regrowth of previously coil-occluded aneurysms.
Am J Neuroradiol 2009; 30: 1059–1061.
Day JW and Raskin NH. Thunderclap headache: Symptom of
unruptured cerebral aneurysm. Lancet 1986; 2: 1247–1248.
Linn FHH, Wijdicks EFM, van der Graaf Y, et al. Prospective
study of sentinel headache in aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage.
Lancet 1994; 344: 590–593.
Markus HS. A prospective follow-up of thunderclap headache
mimicking subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg
Psychiat 1991; 54: 1117–1125.
Mas JL, Baron JC, Bousser MG and Chiras J. Stroke, migraine
and inracranial aneurysm: A case report. Stroke 1986; 17:
1019–1021.
Ostergard JR and Ramadan N. Unruptured vascular malformations
and subarachnoid hemorrhage. In J Olesen, P Tfelt-
Hansen and KMA Welch eds. The Headaches 2nd edition.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins 2000: 789–796.
Raps EC, Rogers JD, Galetta DL, et al. The clinical spectrum
of unruptured intracranial aneurysms. Arch Neurol 1993; 50:
265–268.
Schievink WI. Intracranial aneurysms. NEJM 1997; 336: 28–40.
Wijdicks EFM, Kerkhoff H and van Gijn J. Long-term follow-up
of 71 patients with thunderclap headache mimicking subarachnoid
haemorrhage. Lancet 1988; 2: 68–70.
6.3.2 Headache attributed to arteriovenous malformation
(AVM)
Bruyn GW. Intracranial arteriovenous malformation and
migraine. Cephalalgia 1984; 4: 191–207.
Haas DC. Arteriovenous malformations and migraine: Case
reports and an analysis of the relationship. Headache 1991;
31: 509–513.
Troost BT, Mark LE and Maroon JC. Resolution of classic
migraine after removal of an occipital lobe AVM. Ann
Neurol 1979; 5: 199–201.
6.3.3 Headache attributed to dural arteriovenous
fistula (DAVF)
Garza I. Images from headache: A 'noisy' headache: Dural arteriovenous
fistula resembling new daily persistent headache.
Headache 2008; 48: 1120–1121.
Malek AM, Halbach VV, Dowd CF and Higashida RT.
Diagnosis and treatment of dural arteriovenous fistulas.
Neuroimaging Clin N Am 1998; 8: 445–468.
6.3.4 Headache attributed to cavernous angioma
Afridi S and Goadsby PJ. New onset migraine with a brain stem
cavernous angioma. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 2003; 74:
680–682.
De Benedittis G. SUNCT syndrome associated with cavernous
angioma of the brain stem. Cephalalgia 1996; 16: 503–506.
Denier C, Labauge P, Brunereau L, et al. Clinical features of
cerebral cavernous malformations patients with krit1 mutations.
Ann Neurol 2004; 55: 213–220.
Epstein MA, Beerman PH and Schut L. Cavernous angioma
presenting as atypical facial and head pain. J Child Neurol
1990; 5: 27–30.
Kivelev J, Niemela M, Kivisaari R and Hernesniemi J.
Intraventricular cerebral cavernomas: a series of 12 patients
and review of the literature. J Neurosurg 2010; 112: 140–149.
Robinson JR, Awad IA and Little JR. Natural history of the
cavernous angioma. J Neurosurg 1991; 75: 709–714.
6.3.5 Headache attributed to encephalotrigeminal
or leptomeningeal angiomatosis (Sturge Weber
syndrome)
Chabriat H, Pappata S, Traykov L, et al. Angiomatose
de Sturge Weber responsable d'une he´miple´gie sans
infarctus ce´re´bral en fin de grossesse. Rev Neurol (Paris)
1996; 152: 536–541.
Klapper J. Headache in Sturge-Weber syndrome. Headache 1994;
34: 521–522.
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Lisotto C, Mainardi F, Maggioni F and Zanchin G. Headache in
Sturge–Weber syndrome: a case report and review of the
Literature. Cephalalgia 2004; 24: 1001–1004.
Pascual-Castroviejo I, Pascual-Pascual SI, Velazquez-Fragua R
and Viano J. Sturge-Weber syndrome: Study of 55 patients.
Can J Neurol Sci 2008; 35: 301–307.
6.4.1 Headache attributed to giant cell arteritis
(GCA)
Caselli RJ and Hunder GG. Neurologic aspects of giant cell (temporal)
arteritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1993; 19: 941–953.
Gonzalez-Gay MA, Barros S, Lopez-Diaz MJ, et al. Giant cell
arteritis: Disease patterns of clinical presentation in a series of
240 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2005; 84: 269–276.
Hunder GG. Giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Rheum Dis Clin
North Am 1990; 16: 399–409.
Lee AG and Brazis PW. Temporal arteritis: A clinical approach.
J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47: 1364–1370.
Mukhtyar C, Guillevin L, Cid MC, et al. EULAR recommendations
for the management of large vessel vasculitis. Ann Rheum
Dis 2009; 68: 318–323.
Solomon S and Cappa KG. The headache of temporal arteritis. J
Am Geriatr Soc 1987; 35: 163–165.
Thielen KR, Wydicks EFM and Nichols DA. Giant cell (temporal)
arteritis: Involvement of the vertebral and internal carotid
arteries. Mayo Clin Proc 1998; 73: 444–446.
6.4.2, 6.4.3 Headache attributed to primary or
secondary angiitis of the central nervous system
Calabrese LH, Furlan AH, Gragg LA and Ropos TH. Primary
angiitis of the central nervous system: Diagnostic criteria and
clinical approach. Cleve J Med 1992: 59: 293–306.
Calabrese LH, Duna GF and Lie JT. Vasculitis in the central
nervous system. Arthritis Rheum 1997; 40: 1189–1201.
Hajj-Ali RA, Singhal AB, Benseler S, et al. Primary angiitis of the
CNS. Lancet Neurol 2011; 10: 561–572.
Harris KG, Tran DD, Sickels WJ, et al. Diagnosing intracranial
vasculitis: The roles or MR and angiography. Am J
Neuroradiol 1994; 15: 317–330.
Kumar R, Wijdicks EFM, Brown RD, et al. Isolated angiitis of
the CNS presenting as subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol
Neurosurg Psych 1997; 62: 649–651.
Lie JT. Primary (granulomatous) angiitis of the central nervous
system: A clinicopathologic analysis of 15 new cases and a
review of the literature. Hum Pathol 1992; 23: 164–171.
Moore PM. Vasculitis of the central nervous system. Semin
Neurol 1994; 14: 313–319.
Salvarani C, Brown RD, Jr, Calamia KT, et al. Primary central
nervous system vasculitis: Analysis of 101 patients. Ann Neurol
2007; 62; 442–451.
Savage COS, Harper L, Cockwell P, et al. ABC of arterial and
vascular disease: Vasculitis. BMJ 2000; 320: 1325–1328.
6.5.1 Headache or facial or neck pain attributed to
cervical carotid or vertebral artery dissection
Arnold M, Cumurciuc R, Stapf C, et al. Pain as the only symptom
of cervical artery dissection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat
2006; 77: 1021–1024.
Biousse V, D'Anglejan-Chatillon J, Touboul PJ, et al. Time
course of symptoms in extracranial carotid artery dissections.
A series of 80 patients. Stroke 1995; 26: 235–239.
Debette S and Leys D. Cervical-artery dissections: Predisposing
factors, diagnosis, and outcome. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8: 668–678.
Fisher CM. The headache and pain of spontaneous carotid dissection.
Headache 1982; 22: 60–65.
Guillon B, Le´vy C and Bousser MG. Internal carotid artery dissection:
An update. J Neurol Sci 1998; 153: 146–158.
Nakatomi H, Nagata K, Kawamoto S and Shiokawa Y.
Ruptured dissecting aneurysm as a cause of subarachnoid
hemorrhage of unverified etiology. Stroke 1997; 28: 1278–1282.
Ramadan NM, Tietjen GE, Levine SR and Welch KMA.
Scintillating scotomata associated with internal carotid
artery dissection: Report of three cases. Neurology 1991; 41:
1084–1087.
Silbert PL, Mokri B and Schievink WI. Headache and neck pain
in spontaneous internal carotid and vertebral artery dissections.
Neurology 1995; 45: 1517–1522.
Sturzenegger M. Headache and neck pain. The warning symptoms
of vertebral artery dissection. Headache 1994; 34: 187–193.
Tzourio C, Benslamia L, Guillon B, et al. Migraine and the risk
of cervical artery dissection: A case-control study. Neurology
2002; 59: 435–437.
6.5.2 Post-endarterectomy headache
Breen JC, Caplan LR, DeWitt LD, et al. Brain edema after carotid
surgery. Neurology 1996; 46: 175–181.
De Marinis M, Zaccaria A, Faraglia V, et al. Post endarterectomy
headache and the role of the oculo-sympathetic system.
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1991; 54: 314–317.
Ille O, Woimant F, Pruna A, et al. Hypertensive
encephalopathy after bilateral carotid endarterectomy. Stroke
1995; 26: 488–491.
Leviton A, Caplan L and Salzman E. Severe headache after carotid
endarterectomy. Headache 1975; 15: 207–209.
Tehindrazanarivelo A, Lutz G, Petitjean C and Bousser MG.
Headache following carotid endarterectomy: A prospective
study. Cephalalgia 1991; 11 suppl 11: 353.
6.5.3 Headache attributed to carotid or vertebral
angioplasty
Dietrich EB, Ndiaye M and Reid DB. Stenting in the carotid
artery. Experience in 110 patients. J Endovasc Surg 1996; 3:
42–62.
Gil-Peralta A, Mayol A, Gonzalez Marcos JR, et al.
Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of the symptomatic
atherosclerotic carotid arteries; Results, complications and
follow-up. Stroke 1996; 27: 2271–2273.
McCabe DJH, Brown MM and Clifton A. Fatal cerebral reperfusion
hemorrhage after carotid stenting. Stroke 1999; 30:
2483–2486.
Munari LM, Belloni G, Moschini L, et al. Carotid pain during
percutaneous angioplasty. Pathophysiology and clinical features.
Cephalalgia 1994; 14: 127–131.
Schoser BG, Heesen C, Eckert B and Thie A. Cerebral hyperperfusion
injury after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of
extracranial arteries. J Neurol 1997; 244: 101–104.
6.6 Headache attributed to cerebral venous
thrombosis (CVT)
Aidi S, Chaunu MP, Biousse V and Bousser MG. Changing
pattern of headache pointing to cerebral venous thrombosis
after lumbar puncture and intra venous high dose cortico-steroids.
Headache 1999; 39: 559–564.
Biousse V, Ameri A and Bousser MG. Isolated intracranial
hypertension as the only sign of cerebral venous thrombosis.
Neurology 1999; 53: 1537–1542.
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Bousser MG and Ferro JM. Cerebral venous thrombosis: An
update. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6; 162–170.
Cumurciuc R, Crassard I, Sarov M, et al. Headache as the only
neurological sign of cerebral venous thrombosis: A series of 17
cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 2005; 76; 1084–1087.
De Bruijn SFTM, Stam J, Kappelle LJ for CVST study group.
Thunderclap headache as first symptom of cerebral venous
sinus thrombosis. Lancet 1996; 348: 1623–1625.
Leker RR and Steiner I. Features of dural sinus thrombosis simulating
pseudotumor cerebri. Eur J Neurol 1999; 6: 601–604.
Newman DS, Levine SR, Curtis VL and Welch KMA. Migraine
like visual phenomena associated with cerebral venous thrombosis.
Headache 1989; 29: 82–85.
Wasay M, Kojan S, Dai AI, et al. Headache in Cerebral Venous
Thrombosis: Incidence, pattern and location in 200 consecutive
patients. J Headache Pain 2011; 11: 137–139.
6.7.1 Headache attributed to an intracranial
endovascular procedure
Gil-Gouveia R, Fernandes Sousa R, Lopes L, et al. Headaches
during angiography and endovascular procedures. J Neurol
2007; 254; 591–596.
Martins IP, Baeta E, Paiva T, et al. Headaches during intracranial
endovascular procedures: A possible model for vascular
headache. Headache 1993; 23: 227–233.
Nichols FT, Mawad M, Mohr JP, et al. Focal headache during
balloon inflation in the vertebral and basilar arteries. Headache
1993; 33: 87–89.
Nichols FT, Mawad M, Mohr JP, et al. Focal headache during
balloon inflation in the internal carotid and middle cerebral
arteries. Stroke 1990; 21: 555–559.
6.7.2 Angiography headache
Gil-Gouveia RS, Sousa RF, Lopes L, et al. Post-angiography
headaches. J Headache Pain 2008; 9: 327–330.
Ramadan NM, Gilkey SJ, Mitchell M, et al. Postangiography
headache. Headache 1995; 35: 21–24.
Shuaib A and Hachinski VC. Migraine and the risks from angiography.
Arch Neurol 1988; 45: 911–912.
6.7.3 Headache attributed to reversible cerebral
vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS) and 6.7.3.1
Headache probably attributed to reversible cerebral
vasoconstriction syndrome
Call GK, Fleming MC, Sealfon S, et al. Reversible cerebral segmental
vasoconstriction. Stroke 1988; 19: 1159–1170.
Calabrese LH, Dodick DW, Schwedt TJ and Singhal AB.
Narrative review: Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndromes.
Ann Intern Med 2007; 146: 34–44.
Chen SP, Fuh JL, Lirng JF, et al. Recurrent primary thunderclap
headache and benign CNS angiopathy: Spectra of the same
disorder? Neurology 2006; 67: 2164–2169.
Chen SP, Fuh JL, Wang SJ, et al. Magnetic resonance angiography
in reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndromes. Ann
Neurol 2010; 67: 648–656.
Ducros A, Boukobza M, Porcher R, et al. The clinical and radiological
spectrum of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome.
A prospective series of 67 patients. Brain 2007; 130:
3091–3101.
Ducros A and Bousser MG. Thunderclap headache. BMJ 2012;
345: e8557.
Ducros A, Fiedler U, Porcher R, et al. Hemorrhagic manifestations
of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome.
Frequency, features, and risk factors. Stroke 2010; 41:
2505–2511.
Dodick DW, Brown RD, Britton JW and Huston J. Non aneurysmal
thunderclap headache with diffuse, multifocal segmental
and reversible vasospasm. Cephalalgia 1999; 19: 118–123.
Singhal AB, Hajj-Ali RA, Topcuoglu MA, et al. Reversible cerebral
vasoconstriction syndromes: Analysis of 139 cases. Arch
Neurol 2011; 68: 1005–1012.
6.7.4 Headache attributed to intracranial arterial
dissection
Dlamini N, Freeman JL, Mackay MT, et al. Intracranial dissection
mimicking transient cerebral arteriopathy in childhood
arterial ischemic stroke. J Child Neurol 2011; 26: 1203–1206.
Sharif AA, Remley KB and Clark HB. Middle cerebral artery
dissection. A clinicopathologic study. Neurology 1995; 45:
1929–1231.
Szatmary Z, Boukobza M, Vahedi K, et al. Orgasmic headache
and middle cerebral artery dissection. J Neurol Neurosurg
Psychiat 2006; 77: 693–694.
6.8.1 Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy
with Subcortical Infarcts and
Leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL)
Chabriat H, Tournier-Lasserve E, Vahedi K, et al. Autosomal
dominant migraine with MRI white matter abnormalities mapping
to the CADASIL locus. Neurology 1995; 45: 1086–1091.
Chabriat H, Vahedi K, Iba-Zizen MT, et al. Clinical spectrum of
CADASIL: A study of 7 families. Lancet 1995; 346: 934–939.
Joutel A, Corpechot C, Ducros A, et al. 'Notch 3' mutations in
CADASIL, a hereditary adult-onset condition causing stroke
and dementia. Nature 1996; 383: 707–710.
Vahedi K, Chabriat H, Levy C, et al. Migraine with aura and
brain magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities in patients
with CADASIL. Arch Neurol 2004; 61: 1237–1240.
6.8.2 Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic
Acidosis and Stroke-like episodes (MELAS)
Klopstock A, May P, Siebel E, et al. Mitochondrial DNA in
migraine with aura. Neurology 1996; 46: 1735–1738.
Koo B, Becker L, Chuang S, et al. Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy,
lactic acidosis, stroke-like episodes (MELAS): Clinical,
radiological, pathological and genetic observations. Ann
Neurol 1993; 34: 25–32.
Ojaimi J, Katsabanis S, Bower S, et al. Mitochondrial DNA
in stroke and migraine with aura. Cerebrovasc Dis 1998; 8:
102–106.
Pavlakis SG, Phillips PC, Di Mauro S, et al. Mitochondrial myopathy,
encephalopathy, lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes:
A distinct clinical syndrome. Ann Neurol 1984; 16: 481–488.
6.8.3 Headache attributed to another genetic
vasculopathy
Gould DB, Phalan FC, van Mil SE, et al. Role of COL4A1 in
small-vessel disease and hemorrhagic stroke. NEJM 2006; 354:
1489–1496..
Hottenga JJ, Vanmolkot KR, Kors EE, et al. The 3p21.1-p21.3
hereditary vascular retinopathy locus increases the risk for
Raynaud's phenomenon and migraine. Cephalalgia 2005; 25:
1168–1172.
Richards A, van den Maagdenberg AM, Jen JC, et al. C-terminal
truncations in human 3'-5' DNA exonuclease TREX1 cause
International Headache Society 2013
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autosomal dominant retinal vasculopathy with cerebral leukodystrophy.
Nat Genet 2007; 39: 1068–1070.
Terwindt GM, Haan J, Ophoff RA, et al. Clinical and genetic
analysis of a large Dutch family with autosomal dominant
vascular retinopathy, migraine and Raynaud's phenomenon.
Brain 1998; 121: 303–316.
Vahedi K, Boukobza M, Massin P, et al. Clinical and brain MRI
follow-up study of a family with COL4A1 mutation. Neurology
2007; 69: 1564–1568..
Vahedi K, Massin P, Guichard JP, et al. Hereditary infantile
hemiparesis, retinal arteriolar tortuosity, and leukoencephalopathy.
Neurology 2003; 60: 57–63.
6.9 Headache attributed to pituitary apoplexy
Carral F. Pituitary apoplexy. Arch Neurol 2001; 58: 1143–1144.
Chakeres DW, Curtin A and Ford G. Magnetic resonance imaging
of pituitary and parasellar abnormalities. Radiol Clin
North Am 1989; 27: 265–281.
Da Motta LA, de Mello PA, de Lacerda CM, et al. Pituitary
apoplexy. Clinical course, endocrine evaluations and treatment
analysis. J Neurosurg Sci 1991; 43: 25–36.
Dodick DW and Wijdicks EFM.. Pituitary apoplexy presenting
as thunderclap headache. Neurology 1998; 50: 1510–1511.
Hernandez A, Angeles Del Real M, Aguirre M, et al. Pituitary
apoplexy: A transient benign presentation mimicking with subarachnoid
hemorrhage with negative angiography. Eur J
Neurol 1998; 5: 499–501.
Lee CC, Cho AS and Carter WA. Emergency department presentation
of pituitary apoplexy. Am J Emerg Med 2000; 18:
328–331.
McFadzean RM, Doyle D, Rampling R, et al. Pituitary apoplexy
and its effect on vision. Neurosurgery 1991; 29: 669–675.
International Headache Society 2013
712 Cephalalgia 33(9)
7. Headache attributed to non-vascular
intracranial disorder
7.1 Headache attributed to increased cerebrospinal
fluid pressure
7.1.1 Headache attributed to idiopathic intracranial
hypertension (IIH)
7.1.2 Headache attributed to intracranial hypertension
secondary to metabolic, toxic or hormonal
causes
7.1.3 Headache attributed to intracranial hypertension
secondary to hydrocephalus
7.2 Headache attributed to low cerebrospinal fluid
pressure
7.2.1 Post-dural puncture headache
7.2.2 CSF fistula headache
7.2.3 Headache attributed to spontaneous intracranial
hypotension
7.3 Headache attributed to non-infectious inflammatory
intracranial disease
7.3.1 Headache attributed to neurosarcoidosis
7.3.2 Headache attributed to aseptic (non-infectious)
meningitis
7.3.3 Headache attributed to other non-infectious
inflammatory intracranial disease
7.3.4 Headache attributed to lymphocytic
hypophysitis
7.3.5 Syndrome of transient Headache and
Neurological Deficits with cerebrospinal
fluid Lymphocytosis (HaNDL)
7.4 Headache attributed to intracranial neoplasia
7.4.1 Headache attributed to intracranial neoplasm
7.4.1.1 Headache attributed to colloid cyst of
the third ventricle
7.4.2 Headache attributed to carcinomatous
meningitis
7.4.3 Headache attributed to hypothalamic or
pituitary hyper- or hyposecretion
7.5 Headache attributed to intrathecal injection
7.6 Headache attributed to epileptic seizure
7.6.1 Hemicrania epileptica
7.6.2 Post-ictal headache
7.7 Headache attributed to Chiari malformation type I
(CM1)
7.8 Headache attributed to other non-vascular intracranial
disorder
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a headache occurs for the first time in close temporal
relation to a non-vascular intracranial disorder, it
is coded as a secondary headache attributed to that
disorder. This remains true when the new headache
has the characteristics of any of the primary headache
disorders classified in Part one of ICHD-3 beta. When a
pre-existing headache with the characteristics of a primary
headache disorder becomes chronic, or is made
significantly worse (usually meaning a two-fold or
greater increase in frequency and/or severity), in close
temporal relation to a non-vascular intracranial disorder,
both the initial headache diagnosis and a diagnosis
of 7. Headache attributed to non-vascular intracranial
disorder (or one of its subtypes) should be given, provided
that there is good evidence that the disorder can
cause headache.
Introduction
In this chapter, the headaches are attributed to changes
in intracranial pressure. Both increased and decreased
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure can lead to headache.
Other causes of headache here are non-infectious
inflammatory diseases, intracranial neoplasia, seizures,
rare conditions such as intrathecal injections and Chiari
malformation type I, and other non-vascular intracranial
disorders.
Compared with those on primary headaches, there
are few epidemiological studies of these headache types.
Controlled trials of therapy are almost non-existent.
For headache attributed to any of the non-vascular
intracranial disorders listed here, the diagnostic criteria
include whenever possible:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A non-vascular intracranial disorder known to be
able to cause headache has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the non-vascular intracranial disorder
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the non-vascular intracranial
disorder
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the non-vascular
intracranial disorder
3. headache has characteristics typical for the nonvascular
intracranial disorder
4. other evidence exists of causation
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Headache persisting for more than 1 month after
successful treatment or spontaneous resolution of the
intracranial disorder usually has other mechanisms.
Headache persisting for more than 3 months after treatment
or remission of intracranial disorders is defined in
International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 713
the Appendix for research purposes. Such headache
exists but has been poorly studied; Appendix entries
are intended to stimulate further research into such
headaches and their mechanisms.
7.1 Headache attributed to increased cerebrospinal fluid
pressure
Coded elsewhere:
Headache attributed to intracranial pressure or hydrocephalus
secondary to an intracranial neoplasm is
coded as 7.4.1 Headache attributed to intracranial
neoplasm.
Description:
Headache caused by increased cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) pressure, usually accompanied by other symptoms
and/or clinical signs of intracranial hypertension.
It remits after normalization of CSF pressure.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Increased CSF pressure (>250 mm CSF) measured
by lumbar puncture (performed in the lateral decubitus
position, without sedative medications), epidural
or intraventricular monitoring, with normal
CSF chemistry and cellularity
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
intracranial hypertension
2. headache is relieved by reducing intracranial
pressure
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
7.1.1 Headache attributed to idiopathic intracranial
hypertension (IIH)
Previously used terms:
Headache attributed to benign intracranial hypertension
(BIH); pseudotumour cerebri; meningeal hydrops;
serous meningitis.
Description:
Headache caused by idiopathic intracranial hypertension
(IIH), usually accompanied by other symptoms
and/or clinical signs of IIH. It remits after normalization
of cerebrospinal fluid pressure.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) has been
diagnosed, with CSF pressure >250mm CSF
(measured by lumbar puncture performed in the
lateral decubitus position, without sedative medications,
or by epidural or intraventricular
monitoring)
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
IIH, or led to its discovery
2. headache is relieved by reducing intracranial
hypertension
3. headache is aggravated in temporal relation to
increase in intracranial pressure
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) most commonly
occurs in young obese women.
IIH should be diagnosed with caution in those
with altered mental status and in patients with
CSF pressure below 250 mm CSF. In some patients,
especially children, an opening pressure of up to 280
mm CSF is normal, but, for most, an opening pressure
above 280 mm CSF should be considered
elevated.
Body mass index is only weakly related to CSF pressure,
and a mildly elevated CSF pressure should not be
dismissed in obese patients.
CSF pressure varies when lumbar epidural pressure
monitoring is done for 1 hour or more, so a
single measurement performed within minutes may
not be indicative of the average CSF pressure over
24 hours. Diagnostic CSF pressure measurement
should be made when the patient is not receiving
treatment to lower the intracranial pressure.
Neuroimaging findings consistent with the diagnosis
of IIH include empty sella turcica, distension of the
perioptic subarachnoid space, flattening of the posterior
sclerae, protrusion of the optic nerve papillae into
the vitreous and transverse cerebral venous sinus
stenosis.
Although the majority of patients with IIH have
papilloedema, IIH without papilloedema has been
observed. Other symptoms or signs of IIH include
pulse-synchronous tinnitus, transient visual obscurations,
neck or back pain and diplopia.
7.1.1 Headache attributed to idiopathic intracranial
hypertension (IIH) lacks specific features. It is frequently
described as frontal, retro-orbital, 'pressure
like' or explosive; migraine-like headache may also
occur.
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7.1.2 Headache attributed to intracranial hypertension
secondary to metabolic, toxic or hormonal causes
Coded elsewhere:
Headache attributed to increased intracranial pressure
as a result of head trauma, vascular disorder or intracranial
infection is coded to whichever of these is the
cause. Headache attributed to raised intracranial pressure
occurring as a side effect of medication is coded as
8.1.11 Headache attributed to long-term use of non-headache
medication.
Description:
Headache caused by intracranial hypertension secondary
to a variety of systemic disorders and accompanied
by other symptoms and/or clinical signs of intracranial
hypertension. It remits with resolution of the systemic
disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A metabolic, toxic or hormonal disorder has
been diagnosed, with CSF pressure >250 mm CSF
(measured by lumbar puncture performed
in the lateral decubitus position, without sedative
medications, or by epidural or intraventricular
monitoring) and with normal CSF chemistry and
cellularity
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal
relation to the metabolic, toxic or hormonal
disorder
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the metabolic, toxic or
hormonal disorder
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the metabolic, toxic
or hormonal disorder
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Potential causes of intracranial hypertension include
acute hepatic failure, hypercarbia, acute hypertensive
crisis, Reye's hepatocerebral syndrome and heart
failure.
Removal of the inciting agent or treatment of the
secondary cause may not be sufficient to normalize
the high intracranial pressure; additional treatment is
often required to prevent visual loss, and to relieve
headache and other symptoms.
7.1.3 Headache attributed to intracranial hypertension
secondary to hydrocephalus
Description:
Headache caused by hydrocephalus, accompanied by
other symptoms and/or clinical signs of increased cerebrospinal
fluid pressure or hydrocephalus. It remits
after resolution of the hydrocephalus.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Hydrocephalus has been diagnosed, with CSF pressure
>250 mm CSF (measured by lumbar puncture
performed in the lateral decubitus position, without
sedative medications, or by epidural or intraventricular
monitoring)
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the hydrocephalus
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the hydrocephalus
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the hydrocephalus
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Normal-pressure hydrocephalus usually does not cause
headache; occasionally, mild dull headache is reported.
7.2 Headache attributed to low cerebrospinal fluid
pressure
Description:
Orthostatic headache in the presence of low cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) pressure (either spontaneous or secondary),
or CSF leakage, usually accompanied by neck
pain, tinnitus, changes in hearing, photophobia and/
or nausea. It remits after normalization of CSF pressure
or successful sealing of the CSF leak.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Low CSF pressure (<60 mm CSF) and/or evidence
of CSF leakage on imaging
C. Headache has developed in temporal relation to the
low CSF pressure or CSF leakage, or led to its
discovery
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
International Headache Society 2013
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Comment:
7.2 Headache attributed to low cerebrospinal fluid pressure
is usually but not invariably orthostatic. Headache
that significantly worsens soon after sitting upright or
standing and/or improves after lying horizontally is
likely to be caused by low CSF pressure, but this
cannot be relied on as a diagnostic criterion. Evidence
of causation may depend on onset in temporal relation
to the presumed cause together with exclusion of other
diagnoses.
7.2.1 Post-dural puncture headache
Previously used term:
Post-lumbar puncture headache.
Description:
Headache occurring within 5 days of a lumbar puncture,
caused by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage
through the dural puncture. It is usually accompanied
by neck stiffness and/or subjective hearing symptoms. It
remits spontaneously within 2 weeks, or after sealing of
the leak with autologous epidural lumbar patch.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Dural puncture has been performed
C. Headache has developed within 5 days of the dural
puncture
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Independent risk factors for 7.2.1 Post-dural puncture
headache have recently been demonstrated:
female gender, age between 31 and 50 years, a
previous history of 7.2.1 Post-dural puncture headache
and orientation of the needle bevel perpendicular to the
long axis of the spinal column at the time of the dural
puncture.
7.2.2 CSF fistula headache
Description:
Orthostatic headache occurring after a procedure or
trauma causing a persistent cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
leakage resulting in low intracranial pressure. It remits
after successful sealing of the CSF leak.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Both of the following:
1. a procedure has been performed, or trauma has
occurred, known sometimes to cause persistent
CSF leakage (CSF fistula)
2. low CSF pressure (<60 mm CSF) and/or evidence
of low CSF pressure and/or of CSF leakage
on MRI, myelography, CT myelography or
radionuclide cisternography
C. Headache has developed in temporal relation to the
procedure or trauma
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
7.2.3 Headache attributed to spontaneous intracranial
hypotension
Previously used terms:
Headache attributed to spontaneous low CSF pressure
or primary intracranial hypotension; low CSF-volume
headache; hypoliquorrhoeic headache.
Description:
Orthostatic headache caused by low cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) pressure of spontaneous origin. It is usually
accompanied by neck stiffness and subjective hearing
symptoms. It remits after normalization of CSF
pressure.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Low CSF pressure (<60 mm CSF) and/or evidence
of CSF leakage on imaging
C. Headache has developed in temporal relation to the
low CSF pressure or CSF leakage, or has led to its
discovery
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
7.2.3 Headache attributed to spontaneous intracranial
hypotension cannot be diagnosed in a patient who has
had a dural puncture within the prior month.
The headache in patients with spontaneous CSF
leaks or spontaneously low CSF pressure may resemble
7.2.1 Post-dural puncture headache, occurring immediately
or within seconds of assuming an upright position
and resolving quickly (within 1 minute) after lying horizontally.
Alternatively it may show delayed response to
postural change, worsening after minutes or hours of
being upright and improving, but not necessarily resolving,
after minutes or hours of being horizontal.
Although there is a clear postural component in
most cases of 7.2.3 Headache attributed to spontaneous
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intracranial hypotension, it may not be as dramatic or
immediate as in 7.2.1 Post-dural puncture headache. The
orthostatic nature of the headache at its onset should be
sought when eliciting a history, as this feature may
become much less obvious over time.
Although autologous epidural blood patches (EBPs)
are frequently effective in sealing CSF leaks, the
response to a single EBP may not be permanent, and
complete relief of symptoms may not be achieved until
two or more EBPs have been performed. However,
some degree of sustained improvement, beyond a few
days, is generally expected. In some cases, sustained
improvement cannot be achieved with EBPs and surgical
intervention may be required.
In patients with typical orthostatic headache and no
apparent cause, after exclusion of postural orthostatic
tachycardia syndrome (POTS) it is reasonable in clinical
practice to provide autologous lumbar EBP.
It is not clear that all patients have an active CSF
leak, despite a compelling history or brain imaging
signs compatible with CSF leakage. Cisternography is
an outdated test, now infrequently used; it is significantly
less sensitive than other imaging modalities
(MRI, CT or digital subtraction myelography). Dural
puncture to measure CSF pressure directly is not necessary
in patients with positive MRI signs such as dural
enhancement with contrast.
The underlying disorder in 7.2.3 Headache attributed
to spontaneous intracranial hypotension may be low CSF
volume. A history of a trivial increase in intracranial
pressure (e.g. on vigorous coughing) is sometimes elicited.
Postural headache has been reported after coitus:
such headache should be coded as 7.2.3 Headache
attributed to spontaneous intracranial hypotension
because it is most probably a result of CSF leakage.
7.3 Headache attributed to non-infectious inflammatory
intracranial disease
Description:
Headache in the presence of a non-infectious inflammatory
intracranial disease, usually with lymphocytic
pleocytosis in the cerebrospinal fluid. It remits after
resolution of the inflammatory disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A non-infectious inflammatory disease known to be
able to cause headache has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the non-infectious inflammatory
disease
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the non-infectious
inflammatory disease
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement of the non-infectious
inflammatory disease
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
7.3.1 Headache attributed to neurosarcoidosis
Description:
Headache caused by neurosarcoidosis, associated with
aseptic meningitis, cranial nerve lesions, intracranial
space-occupying lesion(s) on brain MRI, periventricular
inflammatory focal lesions and/or homogeneously
enhancing mass lesions on brain or spinal MRI that
are confirmed on biopsy as non-caseating granulomas.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Neurosarcoidosis has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of neurosarcoidosis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of neurosarcoidosis
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in neurosarcoidosis
3. headache is accompanied by one or more cranial
nerve palsies
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Other manifestations of neurosarcoidosis include aseptic
meningitis, cranial nerve lesions, intracranial spaceoccupying
lesion(s) on brain MRI, periventricular
inflammatory focal lesions and/or homogeneously
enhancing mass lesions on brain or spinal MRI that
are confirmed on biopsy as non-caseating granulomas.
7.3.2 Headache attributed to aseptic (non-infectious)
meningitis
Description:
Headache caused by aseptic meningitis, associated with
other symptoms and/or clinical signs of meningeal irritation.
It resolves after resolution of the meningitis.
International Headache Society 2013
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Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Aseptic meningitis has been diagnosed by CSF
examination
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of aseptic meningitis, or led to its
discovery
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of aseptic meningitis
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in aseptic meningitis
3. headache is accompanied by other symptoms
and/or clinical signs of meningeal inflammation
including neck stiffness (meningismus) and/or
photophobia
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The CSF in patients with aseptic meningitis shows
lymphocytic pleocytosis, mildly elevated protein and
normal glucose in the absence of infectious organisms.
Aseptic meningitis may occur after exposure to certain
drugs, including ibuprofen or other NSAIDS,
immunoglobulins, penicillin or trimethoprim, intrathecal
injections and/or insufflations.
7.3.3 Headache attributed to other non-infectious
inflammatory intracranial disease
Description:
Headache caused by any of a variety of autoimmune
disorders, associated with other symptoms and/or clinical
signs of the causative disorder. It remits after successful
treatment of the autoimmune disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A non-infectious inflammatory disease known to be
able to cause headache, other than those described
above, has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to the
onset of the non-infectious inflammatory disease
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the non-infectious
inflammatory disease
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the non-infectious
inflammatory disease
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Headache can be causally associated with, but is not
usually a presenting or prominent symptom of, acute
demyelinating encephalomyelitis (ADEM), systemic
lupus erythematosus (SLE), Behc¸ et's syndrome and
other systemic or focal (e.g. limbic encephalitis) autoimmune
syndromes.
7.3.4 Headache attributed to lymphocytic hypophysitis
Description:
Headache caused by lymphocytic hypophysitis, associated
with pituitary enlargement and, in half of
cases, with hyperprolactinaemia. It remits after successful
treatment of the lymphocytic hypophysitis.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Lymphocytic hypophysitis has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the lymphocytic hypophysitis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the lymphocytic
hypophysitis
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the lymphocytic
hypophysitis
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Lymphocytic hypophysitis is associated with pituitary
enlargement and homogeneous contrast enhancement
on brain MRI. It is accompanied by hyperprolactinaemia
in 50% of cases or autoantibodies against hypophyseal
cytosol protein in 20% of cases.
The disorder typically develops at the end of pregnancy
or during the post-partum period, but it can also
occur in men.
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7.3.5 Syndrome of transient Headache and Neurological
Deficits with cerebrospinal fluid Lymphocytosis
(HaNDL)
Previously used terms:
Migraine with cerebrospinal pleocytosis; pseudomigraine
with lymphocytic pleocytosis.
Description:
Migraine-like headache episodes (typically one to
twelve) accompanied by neurological deficits including
hemiparaesthesia, hemiparesis and/or dysphasia, but
positive visual symptoms only uncommonly, lasting
several hours. There is lymphocytic pleocytosis. The
disorder resolves spontaneously within 3 months.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Episodes of migraine-like headache fulfilling criteria
B and C
B. Both of the following:
1. accompanied or shortly preceded by the onset of
at least one of the following transient neurological
deficits lasting >4 hours
a) hemiparaesthesia
b) dysphasia
c) hemiparesis
2. associated with CSF lymphocytic pleocytosis
(>15 white cells per ml), with negative aetiological
studies
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache and transient neurological deficits
have developed or significantly worsened in temporal
relation to the CSF lymphocytic pleocytosis,
or led to its discovery
2. headache and transient neurological deficits
have significantly improved in parallel with
improvement in the CSF lymphocytic
pleocytosis
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The clinical picture of 7.3.5 Syndrome of transient
Headache and Neurological Deficits with cerebrospinal
fluid Lymphocytosis (HaNDL) is of 1–12 discrete episodes
of transient neurological deficits accompanied or
followed by moderate to severe headache. Most of the
episodes last hours, but some may last for more than 24
hours. The neurological manifestations include sensory
symptoms in about three-quarters of cases, aphasia in
two-thirds and motor deficits in a little over half.
Migraine-aura-like visual symptoms are relatively
uncommon (fewer than 20% of cases). The syndrome
resolves within 3 months.
In addition to CSF lymphocytosis (up to 760
cells/ml), there are elevations of CSF total protein (up
to 250 mg/dl) in >90% of cases and of CSF pressure
(up to 400 mm CSF) in more than 50% of cases. The
presence of a viral prodrome in at least one-quarter of
cases has raised the possibility of an autoimmune
pathogenesis of 7.3.5 Syndrome of transient Headache
and Neurological Deficits with cerebrospinal fluid
Lymphocytosis (HaNDL). A recent description of antibodies
to a subunit of the T-type voltage-gated calcium
channel CACNA1H in the sera of two patients with
this disorder supports this view.
Papilloedema is occasionally present. Routine CT
and MRI scans (with or without intravenous contrast)
and angiography are invariably normal when
performed outside of an episode. Ictal brain imaging
may show delayed brain perfusion without increased
diffusion-weighted imaging changes, and narrowing
of cerebral arteries. Also, grey matter oedema and
sulcal enhancement have been described in a single
patient. Microbiological studies have been uniformly
normal. EEG and SPECT scans may show focally
abnormal areas consistent with the focal neurological
deficits.
Most patients with this syndrome have no prior history
of migraine. The clinician must consider other
diagnoses that may share some of its clinical features,
including 1.2.3 Hemiplegic migraine (although mutations
of the CACNA1A gene, the cause of 1.2.3.1.1
Familial hemiplegic migraine type 1 (FHM1), have
been excluded in several patients with 7.3.5 Syndrome
of transient Headache and Neurological Deficits with
cerebrospinal fluid Lymphocytosis (HaNDL)), neuroborreliosis,
neurosyphilis, neurobrucellosis, mycoplasma,
granulomatous and neoplastic arachnoiditis,
encephalitis and CNS vasculitis.
7.4 Headache attributed to intracranial neoplasia
Description:
Headache caused by intracranial neoplasia.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Intracranial neoplasia has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least one
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the intracranial neoplasia, or led to its discovery
2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the intracranial neoplasia
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3. headache has significantly improved in temporal
relation to successful treatment of the intracranial
neoplasia
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
7.4.1 Headache attributed to intracranial neoplasm
Description:
Headache, usually progressive, worse in the morning
and aggravated by Valsalva-like manoeuvres, caused
by one or more space-occupying intracranial tumours.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A space-occupying intracranial neoplasm has been
demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
development of the neoplasm, or led to its
discovery
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the neoplasm
b) headache has significantly improved in temporal
relation to successful treatment of the
neoplasm
3. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) progressive
b) worse in the morning or after daytime
napping
c) aggravated by Valsalva-like manoeuvres
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
7.4.1.1 Headache attributed to colloid cyst of the third
ventricle
Description:
Headache caused by colloid cyst of the third ventricle,
presenting very characteristically as recurrent attacks
with thunderclap onset and reduced level or loss of
consciousness.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A colloid cyst of the third ventricle has been
demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
development of the colloid cyst, or led to its
discovery
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache is recurrent, with thunderclap onset
and accompanied by reduced level or loss of
consciousness
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in temporal relation to successful
treatment of the colloid cyst
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
The vast majority of colloid cysts of the third ventricle
are discovered incidentally, having been asymptomatic.
Nevertheless, their position immediately adjacent to the
foramen of Monro can, on occasion, result in sudden
obstructive hydrocephalus, causing headache with
thunderclap onset and reduced level or loss of consciousness.
This highly characteristic presentation
should lead to rapid diagnosis. 7.4.1.1 Headache attributed
to colloid cyst of the third ventricle signals a lifethreatening
emergency.
7.4.2 Headache attributed to carcinomatous meningitis
Description:
Headache caused by carcinomatous meningitis, usually
accompanied by signs of encephalopathy and/or cranial
nerve palsies.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Carcinomatous meningitis (in the presence of systemic
neoplasia known to be associated with carcinomatous
meningitis) has been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
development of the carcinomatous meningitis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the carcinomatous
meningitis
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the carcinomatous
meningitis
3. headache is associated with cranial nerve palsies
and/or encephalopathy
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D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
7.4.3 Headache attributed to hypothalamic or pituitary
hyper- or hyposecretion
Description:
Headache caused by a pituitary adenoma and hypothalamic
or pituitary hyper- or hyposecretion, usually
accompanied by disorder of temperature regulation,
abnormal emotional state and/or altered thirst or appetite.
It remits after successful treatment of the underlying
disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Hypothalamic or pituitary hyper- or hyposecretion
(including prolactin, growth hormone (GH) and/or
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) hypersecretion),
associated with pituitary adenoma, has been
demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
onset of hypothalamic or pituitary hyper- or
hyposecretion
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the hypothalamic or
pituitary hyper- or hyposecretion
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the hypothalamic or
pituitary hyper- or hyposecretion
3. headache is associated with at least one of the
following:
a) disorder of temperature regulation
b) abnormal emotional state
c) altered thirst and/or appetite
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
7.5 Headache attributed to intrathecal injection
Description:
Headache experienced in both upright and recumbent
postures, caused by and occurring within 4 days of an
intrathecal injection and remitting within 14 days.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. An intrathecal injection has been given
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed within 4 days of the
intrathecal injection
2. headache has significantly improved within 14
days after the intrathecal injection
3. signs of meningeal irritation
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Headache usually develops within 4 days after intrathecal
injection, and is present in both upright and recumbent
postures.
When headache persists beyond 14 days, alternative
diagnoses should be considered, such as 7.2.2 CSF fistula
headache, meningitis or leptomeningeal disease.
7.6 Headache attributed to epileptic seizure
Coded elsewhere:
There is a complex and bidirectional association
between migraine and epilepsy. Where the two coexist,
without either being a risk factor for the other,
migraine is coded under 1. Migraine according to its
subtype. Where migraine is comorbid with certain
forms of epilepsy, such as benign occipital epilepsy,
benign rolandic epilepsy and corticoreticular epilepsy
with absence seizures, again it is coded under 1.
Migraine according to its subtype. Where migrainelike
or other headache and epilepsy are both part of a
specific brain disorder (e.g. MELAS), the headache is
coded to that disorder. Where a seizure occurs during
or immediately following a migraine aura ('migralepsy'),
it is coded as 1.4.4 Migraine aura-triggered
seizure.
Description:
Headache caused by an epileptic seizure, occurring
during and/or after the seizure and remitting spontaneously
within hours or up to 3 days.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. The patient is having or has recently had an epileptic
seizure
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed simultaneously with
onset of the seizure
2. headache has resolved spontaneously after the
seizure has terminated
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D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Pre-ictal headache has also been evaluated in a small
study of 11 patients with intractable focal epilepsy.
Headache was frontotemporal, ipsilateral to the focus
in nine patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and
contralateral in one with TLE and one with frontal lobe
epilepsy. More studies are needed to establish the existence
of pre-ictal headache, and determine its prevalence
and clinical features, in patients with partial and
generalized epilepsy.
7.6.1 Hemicrania epileptica
Description:
Headache occurring during a partial epileptic
seizure, ipsilateral to the epileptic discharge, and remitting
immediately or soon after the seizure has
terminated.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. The patient is having a partial epileptic seizure
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed simultaneously with
onset of the partial seizure
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly improved immediately
after the partial seizure has terminated
b) headache is ipsilateral to the ictal discharge
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
7.6.2 Post-ictal headache
Description:
Headache caused by and occurring within 3 hours after
an epileptic seizure, and remitting spontaneously within
72 hours after seizure termination.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. The patient has recently had a partial or generalized
epileptic seizure
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 3 hours after the
epileptic seizure has terminated
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after the
epileptic seizure has terminated
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
7.6.2 Post-ictal headache occurs in over 40% of patients
with either temporal lobe epilepsy or frontal lobe epilepsy
and in up to 60% of patients with occipital lobe
epilepsy. It occurs more frequently after generalized
tonic-clonic seizures than other seizure types.
7.7 Headache attributed to Chiari malformation type I
(CM1)
Description:
Headache caused by Chiari type I malformation,
usually occipital or suboccipital, of short duration
(less than 5 minutes) and provoked by cough or other
Valsalva-like manoeuvres. It remits after the successful
treatment of the Chiari malformation.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Chiari malformation type 1 (CM1) has been
demonstrated1
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. either or both of the following:
a) headache has developed in temporal relation
to the CM1
b) headache has resolved within 3 months after
successful treatment of the CM1
2. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) precipitated by cough or other Valsalva-like
manoeuvre
b) occipital or suboccipital location
c) lasting <5 minutes
3. headache is associated with other symptoms
and/or clinical signs of brainstem, cerebellar,
lower cranial nerve and/or cervical spinal cord
dysfunction
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.2
Notes:
1. Diagnosis of Chiari malformation by MRI requires
a 5-mm caudal descent of the cerebellar tonsils or
3-mm caudal descent of the cerebellar tonsils plus
crowding of the subarachnoid space at the
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722 Cephalalgia 33(9)
craniocervical junction as evidenced by compression
of the CSF spaces posterior and lateral to
the cerebellum, or reduced height of the supraocciput,
or increased slope of the tentorium, or kinking
of the medulla oblongata.
2. Patients with spontaneous intracranial hypotension
secondary to CSF leak may demonstrate MRI evidence
of secondary tonsillar descent and CM1.
These patients may also present with headache
related to cough or other Valsalva-like manoeuvre
(and are correctly coded as 7.2.3 Headache attributed
to spontaneous intracranial hypotension).
Therefore, in all patients presenting with headache
and CM1, CSF leak must be excluded.
Comments:
7.7 Headache attributed to Chiari malformation type I
(CM1) is often descriptively similar to 4.1 Primary
cough headache with the exception, sometimes, of
longer duration (minutes rather than seconds).
Almost all (95%) patients with CM1 report a constellation
of five or more distinct symptoms.
An MRI database showed tonsillar herniation of at
least 5 mm in 0.7% of the population. The clinical context
of CMI is important as many of these subjects can be
asymptomatic. Some patients exhibit 'Chiari-like' symptoms
with minimal cerebellar tonsillar herniation,
whereas others may be asymptomatic with large herniations.
No correlation exists between the amount of herniation
and the severity of headache or level of
disability in presenting patients. Rigid adherence to
the clinical and radiological criteria described above is
recommended prior to surgical intervention, to avoid
an unnecessary surgical procedure that has significant
potential for surgical morbidity.
These criteria for 7.7 Headache attributed to Chiari
malformation type I (CM1) require validation.
Prospective studies with long-term surgical outcome
are needed.
7.8 Headache attributed to other non-vascular
intracranial disorder
Description:
Headache caused by a non-vascular intracranial disorder
other than those described above.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A non-vascular intracranial disorder known to be
able to cause headache, other than those described
above, has been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the non-vascular intracranial
disorder
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has developed or significantly worsened
in parallel with worsening of the nonvascular
intracranial disorder
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement of the non-vascular
intracranial disorder
3. headache has characteristics typical for the nonvascular
intracranial disorder
4. other evidence exists of causation
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Bibliography
7.1.1 Headache attributed to idiopathic
intracranial hypertension (IIH)
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fluid opening pressure in children. NEJM 2010; 363:
891–893.
Friedman DI and Jacobson DM. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension.
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Corbett JJ and Mehta MP. Cerebrospinal fluid pressure in
normal obese subjects and patients with pseudotumor cerebri.
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Whiteley W, Al-Shahi R, Warlow CP, et al. CSF opening pressure:
Reference interval and the effect of body mass index.
Neurology 2006; 67: 1690–1691.
7.2.1 Post-dural puncture headache
Amorim JA, Gomes de Barros MV and Valenca MM. Post-dural
(post-lumbar) puncture headache: Risk factors and clinical features.
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Headache 2010; 50: 1144–1152.
7.2.3 Headache attributed to spontaneous intracranial
hypotension
Mea E, Chiapparini L, Savoiardo M, et al. Application of IHS
criteria to headache attributed to spontaneous intracranial
hypotension in a large population. Cephalalgia 2009; 29:
418–422.
Schievink WI. Spontaneous spinal cerebrospinal fluid leaks and
intracranial hypotension. JAMA 2006; 295: 2286–2296.
Schievink WI, Dodick DW, Mokri B, et al. Diagnostic criteria
for headache due to spontaneous intracranial hypotension: A
perspective. Headache 2011; 51: 1442–1444.
Schievink WI, Maya MM, Louy C, et al. Diagnostic criteria for
spontaneous spinal CSF leaks and intracranial hypotension.
Am J Neuroradiol 2008; 29: 853–856.
Schwedt TJ and Dodick DW. Spontaneous intracranial hypotension.
Curr Pain Headache Rep 2007; 11: 56–61.
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ICHD-3 beta 723
7.3.5 Syndrome of transient Headache and
Neurological Deficits with cerebrospinal fluid
Lymphocytosis (HaNDL)
Bartleson JD, Swanson JW and Whisnant JP. A Migrainous
syndrome with cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis. Neurology
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Berg MJ and Williams LS. The transient syndrome of headache
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Chapman KM, Szczygielski BI, Toth C, et al. Pseudomigraine
with lymphocytic pleocytosis: A calcium channelopathy?
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changes in pseudomigraine with pleocytosis analyzed by single
photon emission computed tomography. A spreading depression
mechanism? Cephalalgia 1998; 18: 570–573.
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Gomez-Aranda F, Canadillas F, Marti-Masso JF, et al.
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Morrison DG, Phuah HK, Reddy AT, et al. Ophthalmologic
involvement in the syndrome of headache, neurologic deficits,
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Parissis D, Ioannidis P, Balamoutsos G and Karacostas D.
Confusional state in the syndrome of HaNDL. Headache
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7.6 Headache attributed to epileptic seizure
Fo¨ rderreuther S, Henkel A, Noachtar S and Straube A.
Headache associated with epileptic seizures: Epidemiology
and clinical characteristics. Headache 2002; 42: 649–655.
Ito M, Adachi N, Nakamura F, et al. Multi-centre study on postictal
headache in patients with localization-related epilepsy.
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headache in patients with partial epilepsy. Cephalalgia 2004;
24:23–28.
Karaali-Savrun F, Go¨ ksan B, Yeni SN, et al. Seizure-related
headache in patients with epilepsy. Seizure 2002; 11: 67–69.
Kwan P, Man CBL, Leung H, et al. Headache in patients with
epilepsy: A prospective incidence study. Epilepsia 2008; 49:
1099–1102.
Leniger T, Isbruch K, Von den Driesch S, et al. Seizureassociated
headache in epilepsy. Epilepsia 2001; 42: 1176–1179.
Schachter SC, Richman K, Loder E and Beluk S. Selfreported
characteristics of postictal headaches. J Epilepsy
1995; 8: 41–43.
Schmidt Botha S, Schutte C-M, Olorunju S and Kakaza M.
Postictal headache in South African adult patients with generalized
epilepsy in a tertiary care setting: A cross-sectional
study. Cephalalgia 2012; 30: 1495–1501.
Schon F and Blau JN. Post-epileptic headache and migraine.
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1987; 50: 1148–1152.
Syversten M, Helde G, Stovner LJ and Brodtkorb E.
Headache add to the burden of epilepsy. J Headache Pain
2007; 8: 224–230.
Yankovsky AE, Andermann F and Bernasconi A. Characteristics
of headache associated with intractable partial epilepsy.
Epilepsia 2005; 46: 1241–1245.
7.7 Headache attributed to Chiari malformation
type I (CM1)
Chen P-K, Fuh J-L and Wang S-J. Cough headache:
A study of 83 consecutive patients. Cephalalgia 2009; 29:
1079–1085.
Pascual J, Iglesias F, Oterino A, et al. Cough, exertional, and
sexual headaches: An analysis of 72 benign and symptomatic
cases. Neurology 1996; 46: 1520–1524.
Pascual J, Gonza´ lez-Mandly A, Martı´n R and Oterino A.
Headaches precipitated by cough, prolonged exercise or
sexual activity: A prospective etiological and clinical study.
J Headache Pain 2008; 9: 259–266.
Grazzi L and Usai S. Headache and Chiari malformation in
young age: Clinical aspects and differential diagnosis. Neurol
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Mea E, Chiapparini L, Leone M, et al. Chronic daily headache in
the adults: Differential diagnosis between symptomatic Chiari
I malformation and spontaneous intracranial hypotension.
Neurol Sci 2011; 32 Suppl 3: S291–S294.
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8. Headache attributed to a substance or its
withdrawal
8.1 Headache attributed to use of or exposure to a
substance
8.1.1 Nitric oxide (NO) donor-induced headache
8.1.1.1 Immediate NO donor-induced headache
8.1.1.2 Delayed NO donor-induced headache
8.1.2 Phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor-induced
headache
8.1.3 Carbon monoxide (CO)-induced headache
8.1.4 Alcohol-induced headache
8.1.4.1 Immediate alcohol-induced headache
8.1.4.2 Delayed alcohol-induced headache
8.1.5 Headache induced by food and/or additive
8.1.5.1 Monosodium glutamate (MSG)-
induced headache
8.1.6 Cocaine-induced headache
8.1.7 Histamine-induced headache
8.1.7.1 Immediate histamine-induced headache
8.1.7.2 Delayed histamine-induced headache
8.1.8 Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-
induced headache
8.1.8.1 Immediate CGRP-induced headache
8.1.8.2 Delayed CGRP-induced headache
8.1.9 Headache attributed to exogenous acute
pressor agent
8.1.10 Headache attributed to occasional use of
non-headache medication
8.1.11 Headache attributed to long-term use of
non-headache medication
8.1.12 Headache attributed to exogenous hormone
8.1.13 Headache attributed to use of or exposure
to other substance
8.2 Medication-overuse headache (MOH)
8.2.1 Ergotamine-overuse headache
8.2.2 Triptan-overuse headache
8.2.3 Simple analgesic-overuse headache
8.2.3.1 Paracetamol (acetaminophen)-overuse
headache
8.2.3.2 Acetylsalicylic acid-overuse headache
8.2.3.3 Other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drug (NSAID)-overuse headache
8.2.4 Opioid-overuse headache
8.2.5 Combination-analgesic-overuse headache
8.2.6 Medication-overuse headache attributed to
multiple drug classes not individually
overused
8.2.7 Medication-overuse headache attributed to
unverified overuse of multiple drug classes
8.2.8 Medication-overuse headache attributed to
other medication
8.3 Headache attributed to substance withdrawal
8.3.1 Caffeine-withdrawal headache
8.3.2 Opioid-withdrawal headache
8.3.3 Oestrogen-withdrawal headache
8.3.4 Headache attributed to withdrawal from
chronic use of other substance
Coded elsewhere:
7.1.2 Headache attributed to intracranial hypertension
secondary to metabolic, toxic or hormonal causes; 7.3.2
Headache attributed to aseptic (non-infectious)
meningitis.
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a headache occurs for the first time in close
temporal relation to exposure to or withdrawal from
a substance, it is coded as a secondary headache
attributed to exposure to or withdrawal from that
substance. This remains true when the new headache
has the characteristics of any of the primary headache
disorders classified in Part one of ICHD-3 beta. When
a pre-existing headache with the characteristics of a
primary headache disorder becomes chronic, or is
made significantly worse (usually meaning a two-fold
or greater increase in frequency and/or severity), in
close temporal relation to exposure to or withdrawal
from a substance, both the initial headache diagnosis
and a diagnosis of 8. Headache attributed to a substance
or its withdrawal (or one of its subtypes)
should be given, provided that there is good evidence
that exposure to or withdrawal from that substance
can cause headache.
Introduction
People with 1. Migraine are physiologically and perhaps
psychologically hyperresponsive to a variety of
internal and external stimuli. Alcohol, food and food
additives, and chemical and drug ingestion and withdrawal,
have all been reported to provoke or activate
migraine in susceptible individuals. The association is
often based on anecdotal data and reports of adverse
drug reactions. The fact that these stimuli are associated
with headache does not prove causation or
eliminate the need to consider other aetiologies.
Because common events happen commonly, the association
between a headache and an exposure to a
substance may be mere coincidence. Headache can
occur on the basis of chance. Headache can be a
symptom of a systemic disease, and drugs given to
treat such a condition will be associated with headache.
In acute migraine drug trials, headache, as well
as associated symptoms, is listed as an adverse drug
reaction despite that it is a symptom of the treated
disorder and not the result of treatment. Some
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disorders may predispose to drug-related headache.
Alone, neither the drug nor the condition would produce
headache.
The general criteria for the headache disorders listed
here are:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Use of or exposure to a substance known to be able
to cause headache has occurred
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by two of the
following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
use of or exposure to the substance
2. headache has significantly improved or resolved
after removal of the substance
3. headache has characteristics typical for use of or
exposure to the substance
4. other evidence exists of causation
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.1 Headache attributed to use of or exposure to a
substance
Description:
Headache caused by use of or exposure to a substance,
with onset immediately or within hours.
Comments:
8.1 Headache attributed to use of or exposure to a substance
can be caused by a toxic substance, as an
unwanted effect of a substance in normal therapeutic
use or in experimental studies.
Headache as a side effect has been recorded with
many drugs, often merely reflecting the high prevalence
of headache. Only when it occurs more often after an
active drug than after placebo in double-blind controlled
trials can headache be regarded as a true side
effect. The double-blind design can also be used experimentally
to study the relationship between drug effects
and headache. In some cases, for example nitric oxide
(NO) donors, such studies have led to a deeper understanding
of the involvement of neurotransmitter
mechanisms in primary headaches.
In general, people with 1. Migraine are much more
susceptible to such headaches than other individuals,
and the same may be true for people with 2. Tensiontype
headache or 3.1 Cluster headache. A number of
substances, such as NO donors and histamine, induce
an immediate headache in both normal volunteers and
in migraineurs. However, it is now clear that people
who have primary headache disorders also develop a
delayed headache, one to several hours after the substance
has been cleared from the blood. Knowledge of
the potential headache-inducing effects of substances in
clinical use is important in order to label these substances
appropriately. Combinations such as alcohol
and disulfiram may cause headache when individual
agents might not.
Paradoxically, the headache encountered by
most people after heavy alcohol use may be a positive
feature because it encourages avoidance of excessive
drinking.
Substances that cause headache through their
toxic effects, such as carbon monoxide, cannot be
studied experimentally and the causal relationship
between exposure and headache has therefore to
be demonstrated in clinical cases where the substance
has been used accidentally or for suicide
attempt.
8.1.1 Nitric oxide (NO) donor-induced headache
Description:
Headache caused immediately, or after a delay, by
acute exposure to a nitric oxide donor.
Comments:
8.1.1 Nitric oxide (NO) donor-induced headache is
typically frontotemporal and pulsating. All NO
donors (e.g. amyl nitrate, erythrityl tetranitrate,
pentaerythrityl tetranitrate, glyceryl trinitrate [GTN],
isosorbide mono- or dinitrate, sodium nitroprusside,
mannitol hexanitrate) can cause headache of this
subform.
GTN induces immediate headache in most normal
people, but can also cause a delayed headache in
migraineurs which fulfils the diagnostic criteria for
1.1 Migraine without aura. In people with 2.3
Chronic tension-type headache, GTN has been shown
to induce a delayed headache which has the characteristics
of 2. Tension-type headache (the effect is
unknown in those with 2.1 Infrequent episodic tension-
type headache or 2.2 Frequent episodic tensiontype
headache). These delayed headaches occur, on
average, 5–6 hours after exposure. People with 3.
Cluster headache develop delayed headache only
during cluster periods: GTN usually induces a cluster
headache attack 1–2 hours after intake.
Headache is a side effect of therapeutic use of nitroglycerine.
With chronic use, tolerance develops within a
week, and GTN-induced headache disappears in most
patients within that time. Other NO donors used therapeutically
may also produce headache. Isosorbide
mononitrate has been the subject of one formal
double-blind placebo-controlled study, and causes a
much longer-lasting headache than GTN owing to its
slow release of NO.
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726 Cephalalgia 33(9)
8.1.1.1 Immediate NO donor-induced headache
Previously used terms:
Nitroglycerine headache; dynamite headache; hot dog
headache.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Absorption of a nitric oxide (NO) donor has
occurred
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 1 hour after
absorption of the NO donor
2. headache has resolved within 1 hour after release
of NO has ended
3. headache has at least one of the following four
characteristics:
a) bilateral
b) mild to moderate intensity
c) pulsating quality
d) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.1.1.2 Delayed NO donor-induced headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache, in a person affected by a primary headache
disorder and with the characteristics of that
headache type, fulfilling criterion C
B. Absorption of a nitric oxide (NO) donor has
occurred
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 2–12 hours after
exposure to the NO donor, and after NO is
cleared from the blood
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
exposure
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.1.2 Phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor-induced
headache
Description:
Headache caused by intake of a phosphodiesterase
inhibitor, resolving spontaneously within 72 hours.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A single dose of a phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor
has been taken
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 5 hours of intake
of the PDE inhibitor
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours of onset
3. headache has at least one of the following four
characteristics:
a) bilateral
b) mild to moderate intensity
c) pulsating quality
d) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are enzymes that break
down cGMP and cAMP. The PDE-5 inhibitors, sildenafil
and dipyridamole, increase levels of cGMP and/or
cAMP. The resultant headache usually has the characteristics
of tension-type headache, but in people with 1.
Migraine (who should be warned of this side effect) it
has the characteristics of 1.1 Migraine without aura.
8.1.3 Carbon monoxide (CO)-induced headache
Previously used term:
Warehouse workers' headache.
Description:
Headache caused by exposure to carbon monoxide,
resolving spontaneously within 72 hours after its
elimination.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Bilateral headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Exposure to carbon monoxide (CO) has occurred
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 12 hours of exposure
to CO
2. headache intensity varies with the severity of CO
intoxication
3. headache has resolved within 72 hours of elimination
of CO
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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Comments:
Typically, carboxyhaemoglobin levels of 10–20% cause
a mild headache without gastrointestinal or neurological
symptoms, levels of 20–30% cause a moderate pulsating
headache and irritability, and levels of 30–40% cause a
severe headache with nausea, vomiting and blurred
vision. At levels above 40%, headache is usually not a
complaint because of the change in consciousness.
There are no good studies of the long-term effects of
CO intoxication on headache, but there is some evidence
of chronic post-CO intoxication headache.
8.1.4 Alcohol-induced headache
Description:
Headache caused immediately, or after a delay, by
ingestion of alcohol (usually in the form of alcoholic
beverages).
8.1.4.1 Immediate alcohol-induced headache
Previously used term:
Cocktail headache.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Alcohol has been ingested
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 3 hours of alcohol
ingestion
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
alcohol ingestion has ceased
3. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) bilateral
b) pulsating quality
c) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
The effective dose of alcohol to cause 8.1.4.1 Immediate
alcohol-induced headache is variable, and can be very
small in people with 1. Migraine (who, at other times,
may tolerate alcohol at the same level as non-migraineurs).
8.1.4.1 Immediate alcohol-induced headache is
much rarer than 8.1.4.2 Delayed alcohol-induced headache.
8.1.4.2 Delayed alcohol-induced headache
Previously used term:
Hangover headache.
Description:
Headache caused, after a delay of hours, by ingestion of
alcohol (usually in the form of alcoholic beverages). It
resolves spontaneously within 72 hours.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Alcohol has been ingested
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 5–12 hours after
ingestion of alcohol
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours of onset
3. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) bilateral
b) pulsating quality
c) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
8.1.4.2 Delayed alcohol-induced headache is one of the
commonest types of secondary headache. It remains
unclear whether additional substances play a role,
such as nicotine in cigarette smoke, which is often
inhaled at the same time as alcohol ingestion.
Whether the delayed headache is a toxic effect or a
manifestation of mechanisms similar to those in
8.1.1.2 Delayed NO donor-induced headache is an unresolved
question.
8.1.5 Headache induced by food and/or additive
Previously used term:
Dietary headache.
Coded elsewhere:
An episode of migraine triggered by a specific food or
additive is coded as the appropriate subtype of 1.
Migraine.
Description:
Headache caused by ingestion of a food or an
additive containing one or more specific substances,
which may not be identified, to which the patient is
sensitive.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A food or an additive containing one or more specific
substances, not necessarily identified but
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728 Cephalalgia 33(9)
capable of causing headache in sensitive subjects,
has been ingested
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 12 hours of
ingestion of the food or additive
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
ingestion of the food or additive
3. headache has at least one of the following four
characteristics:
a) bilateral
b) mild to moderate intensity
c) pulsating quality
d) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Monosodium glutamate, which is a well-established
cause of headache, has a separate subcoding below.
Phenylethylamine, tyramine and aspartame have been
incriminated, but without conclusive evidence.
8.1.5.1 Monosodium glutamate (MSG)-induced
headache
Previously used term:
Chinese restaurant syndrome.
Coded elsewhere:
An episode of migraine triggered by monosodium glutamate
ingestion is coded as the appropriate subtype of
1. Migraine.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Monosodium glutamate (MSG) has been ingested
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 1 hour of MSG
ingestion
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
MSG ingestion
3. headache has at least one of the following five
characteristics:
a) bilateral
b) mild to moderate intensity
c) pulsating quality
d) associated with flushing of the face, pressure
in the face and chest, burning sensations in the
neck, shoulders and/or chest, dizziness and
abdominal discomfort
e) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
8.1.5.1 Monosodium glutamate (MSG)-induced
headache is typically pressing/tightening or burning in
quality, but may be pulsating in people with 1.
Migraine. It is commonly associated with flushing of the
face, pressure in the face and chest, burning sensations in
the neck, shoulders and/or chest, dizziness and abdominal
discomfort.
8.1.6 Cocaine-induced headache
Description:
Headache caused by administration of cocaine by any
route.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Cocaine has been administered by any route
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 1 hour of cocaine
administration
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
cocaine administration
3. headache has at least one of the following four
characteristics:
a) bilateral
b) mild to moderate intensity
c) pulsating quality
d) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
The principal routes of cocaine administration are oral
('chewing'), intranasal ('snorting'), intravenous ('mainlining')
and inhalation (smoking).
8.1.7 Histamine-induced headache
Description:
Headache caused immediately, or after a delay, by
acute exposure to histamine.
Comments:
Histamine has similar effect whether administered subcutaneously,
by inhalation or intravenously. The
mechanism is primarily mediated via the H1 receptor,
and is almost completely blocked by mepyramine.
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Histamine causes an immediate headache in most
people, but can also cause a delayed headache in
migraineurs, which fulfils the diagnostic criteria for
1.1 Migraine without aura. In people with 2. Tensiontype
headache, histamine may induce a delayed headache
which has the characteristics of that disorder.
These delayed headaches occur, on average, 5–6 hours
after exposure. People with 3. Cluster headache develop
delayed headache with the characteristics of that disorder
only during cluster periods, usually 1–2 hours after
exposure.
8.1.7.1 Immediate histamine-induced headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Histamine has been administered
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 1 hour of histamine
absorption
2. headache has resolved within 1 hour after
absorption of histamine has ceased
3. headache has at least one of the following four
characteristics:
a) bilateral
b) mild to moderate intensity
c) pulsating quality
d) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.1.7.2 Delayed histamine-induced headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache, in a person affected by a primary
headache disorder and with the characteristics
of that headache type, fulfilling criterion C
B. Histamine has been administered
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 2–12 hours after
administration of histamine
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
administration of histamine
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.1.8 Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-induced
headache
Description:
Headache caused immediately, or after a delay, by acute
exposure to calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP).
Comments:
Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), administered
by infusion, causes an immediate headache. It can also
cause a delayed headache in migraineurs, on average
5–6 hours after exposure, which fulfils the diagnostic
criteria for 1.1 Migraine without aura.
The CGRP antagonist, telcagepant, is effective in the
acute treatment of migraine.
8.1.8.1 Immediate CGRP-induced headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) has been
administered
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 1 hour of CGRP
absorption
2. headache has resolved within 1 hour after
absorption of CGRP has ceased
3. headache has at least one of the following four
characteristics:
a) bilateral
b) mild to moderate intensity
c) pulsating quality
d) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.1.8.2 Delayed CGRP-induced headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache, in a person affected by a primary headache
disorder and with the characteristics of that
headache type, fulfilling criterion C
B. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) has been
administered
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 2–12 hours after
administration of CGRP
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
administration of CGRP has ceased
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D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.1.9 Headache attributed to exogenous acute pressor
agent
Description:
Headache occurring during, and caused by, an acute
rise in blood pressure induced by an exogenous pressor
agent.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. An acute rise in blood pressure has followed administration
of an exogenous pressor agent
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has occurred within 1 hour of administration
of the pressor agent
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
administration of the pressor agent has ceased
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.1.10 Headache attributed to occasional use of nonheadache
medication
Description:
Headache occurring as an acute adverse event after
occasional use of a medication taken for purposes
other than the treatment of headache.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. One or more doses of medication have been taken
for purposes other than the treatment of headache
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed within minutes to hours
of intake
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
intake has ceased
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
8.1.10 Headache attributed to occasional use of nonheadache
medication has been reported as an adverse
event after use of many drugs. The following are the
most commonly incriminated: atropine, digitalis,
disulfiram, hydralazine, imipramine, nicotine, nifedipine,
nimodipine.
The headache characteristics are not very well
defined in the literature, and probably depend on the
drug, but in most cases headache is dull, continuous,
diffuse and of moderate to severe intensity.
8.1.11 Headache attributed to long-term use of nonheadache
medication
Coded elsewhere:
Headache developing as an adverse event during hormone
therapy is coded as 8.1.12 Headache attributed to
exogenous hormone. Headache developing as a complication
of long-term overuse of acute headache medication
by a person with a headache disorder is coded as
8.2 Medication-overuse headache or one of its subtypes.
Description:
Headache developing as an adverse event during longterm
use of a medication taken for purposes other than
the treatment of headache, and not necessarily
reversible.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache present on 15 days per month and fulfilling
criterion C
B. Long-term use of a medication taken for purposes
other than the treatment of headache
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the commencement of medication intake
2. one or more of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened after an
increase in dosage of the medication
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved after a reduction in dosage of the
medication
c) headache has resolved after cessation of the
medication
3. the medication is recognized to cause headache,
in at least some people, during long-term use
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The dosage and duration of exposure that may result in
headache during long-term use varies from medication
to medication. Similarly, the time required for resolution
varies – if the effect is reversible.
8.1.11 Headache attributed to long-term use of nonheadache
medication can be a result of direct
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pharmacological effect of the medication, such as vasoconstriction
producing malignant hypertension, or to a
secondary effect such as drug-induced intracranial
hypertension. The latter is a recognized complication
of long-term use of anabolic steroids, amiodarone,
lithium carbonate, nalidixic acid, thyroid hormone
replacement therapy, tetracycline and minocycline.
8.1.12 Headache attributed to exogenous hormone
Description:
Headache developing as an adverse event during regular
intake of exogenous hormones, usually for contraception
or as hormone replacement therapy.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Regular intake of one or more exogenous hormones
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the commencement of hormone intake
2. one or more of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened after an
increase in dosage of the hormone
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved after a reduction in dosage of the
hormone
c) headache has resolved after cessation of hormone
intake
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Regular use of exogenous hormones, typically for contraception
or hormone replacement therapy, can be
associated with an increase in frequency or new development
of migraine or other headache. The general rule
is applied that when a headache occurs for the first time
in close temporal relation to regular use of exogenous
hormones, it is coded as 8.1.12 Headache attributed to
exogenous hormone. When a pre-existing headache with
the characteristics of a primary headache disorder
becomes chronic, or is made significantly worse (usually
meaning a two-fold or greater increase in frequency
and/or severity), in close temporal relation to regular
use of exogenous hormones, both the initial headache
diagnosis and a diagnosis of 8.1.12 Headache attributed
to exogenous hormone should be given.
When a woman with 8.1.12 Headache attributed
to exogenous hormone also experiences 8.3.3
Oestrogen withdrawal headache, both diagnoses should
be given.
8.1.13 Headache attributed to use of or exposure to
other substance
Description:
Headache occurring during or soon after, and caused
by, use of or exposure to a substance other than those
described above, including herbal, animal or other
organic or inorganic substances given by physicians
or non-physicians with medicinal intent although not
licensed as medicinal products.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Exposure to a substance other than those described
above
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 12 hours of
exposure
2. headache has resolved within 72 hours after
exposure
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
8.1.13 Headache attributed to use of or exposure to other
substance includes headache caused by herbal, animal
or other organic or inorganic substances given by physicians
or non-physicians with medicinal intent
although not licensed as medicinal products.
8.1.13 Headache attributed to use of or
exposure to other substance has been reported after
exposure to a number of other organic and inorganic
substances. The following are most commonly
incriminated:
Inorganic compounds:
arsenic, borate, bromate, chlorate, copper, iodine, lead,
lithium, mercury, tolazoline hydrochloride.
Organic compounds:
aniline, balsam, camphor, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride,
clordecone, EDTA, heptachlor, hydrogen
sulfide, kerosene, long-chain alcohols, methyl alcohol,
methyl bromide, methyl chloride, methyl iodine,
naphthalene, organophosphorous compounds (parathion,
pyrethrum).
The characteristics of 8.1.13 Headache attributed to use
of or exposure to other substance are not well defined in
the literature, and almost certainly vary with the agent.
In most cases it is dull, diffuse, continuous and of moderate
to severe intensity.
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8.2 Medication-overuse headache (MOH)
Previously used terms:
Rebound headache; drug-induced headache; medication-
misuse headache.
Coded elsewhere:
Patients with a pre-existing primary headache who, in
association with medication overuse, develop a new
type of headache or a marked worsening of their preexisting
headache that, in either case, meets the criteria
for 8.2 Medication-overuse headache (or one of its subtypes),
should be given both this diagnosis and the
diagnosis of the pre-existing headache. Patients who
meet criteria for both 1.3 Chronic migraine and 8.2
Medication-overuse headache should be given both
diagnoses.
Description:
Headache occurring on 15 or more days per month
developing as a consequence of regular overuse of
acute or symptomatic headache medication (on 10 or
more, or 15 or more days per month, depending on the
medication) for more than 3 months. It usually, but not
invariably, resolves after the overuse is stopped.
General comment:
In the criteria set out below for the various subtypes,
the specified numbers of days of medication use considered
to constitute overuse are based on expert opinion
rather than on formal evidence.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache occurring on 15 days per month in a
patient with a pre-existing headache disorder
B. Regular overuse for >3 months of one or more
drugs that can be taken for acute and/or symptomatic
treatment of headache1
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. Patients should be coded for one or more subtypes
of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache according to
the specific medication(s) overused and the criteria
for each below. For example, a patient who fulfils
the criteria for 8.2.2 Triptan-overuse headache and
the criteria for one of the subforms of 8.2.3 Simple
analgesic-overuse headache should receive both
these codes. The exception occurs when patients
overuse combination-analgesic medications, who
are coded 8.2.5 Combination-analgesic-overuse
headache and not according to each constituent of
the combination-analgesic medication.
Patients who use multiple drugs for acute or symptomatic
treatment of headache may do so in a
manner that constitutes overuse even though no
individual drug or class of drug is overused; such
patients should be coded 8.2.6 Medication-overuse
headache attributed to multiple drug classes not individually
overused.
Patients who are clearly overusing multiple drugs
for acute or symptomatic treatment of headache
but cannot give an adequate account of their
names and/or quantities are coded 8.2.7
Medication-overuse headache attributed to unverified
overuse of multiple drug classes until better information
is available. In almost all cases, this necessitates
diary follow-up.
Comments:
8.2 Medication-overuse headache is an interaction
between a therapeutic agent used excessively and a susceptible
patient. Among those with a previous primary
headache diagnosis, most have 1. Migraine or 2.
Tension-type headache (or both); only a small minority
have other primary headache diagnoses such as 3.3
Chronic cluster headache or 4.10 New daily persistent
headache.
The diagnosis of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache is
extremely important clinically. Approximately half of
people with headache on 15 or more days per month for
more than 3 months have 8.2 Medication-overuse headache.
Evidence shows that the majority of patients with
this disorder improve after discontinuation of the overused
medication, as does their responsiveness to preventative
treatment. Simple advice on the causes and
consequences of 8.2 Medication-overuse headache is an
essential part of its management. An explanatory brochure
is often all that is necessary to prevent or discontinue
medication overuse. Prevention is especially
important in patients prone to frequent headache.
However, the behaviour of some patients with 8.2
Medication-overuse headache is similar to that seen
with other drug addictions, and the Severity of
Dependence Scale (SDS) score is a significant predictor
of medication overuse among headache patients.
8.2.1 Ergotamine-overuse headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache
B. Regular intake of ergotamine on 10 days per
month for >3 months.
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Comments:
Bioavailability of ergots is so variable that a minimum
dose cannot be defined.
A patient who fulfils the criteria for 8.2.1
Ergotamine-overuse headache and has regularly used
or overused other drug(s) for the acute or symptomatic
treatment of headache for more than 3 months should
be given all other applicable codes.
8.2.2 Triptan-overuse headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache
B. Regular intake of one or more triptans,1 in any
formulation, on 10 days per month for >3
months.
Note:
1. The triptan(s) will usually be specified in
parenthesis.
Comments:
Triptan overuse may increase migraine frequency to
that of 1.3 Chronic migraine. Evidence suggests that
this occurs sooner with triptan overuse than with ergotamine
overuse.
A patient who fulfils the criteria for 8.2.2 Triptanoveruse
headache and has regularly used or overused
other drug(s) for the acute or symptomatic treatment
of headache for more than 3 months should be given all
other applicable codes.
8.2.3 Simple analgesic-overuse headache
Comment:
A patient who fulfils the criteria for 8.2.3 Simple analgesic-
overuse headache (or one of its subtypes) and has
regularly used or overused other drug(s) for the acute
or symptomatic treatment of headache for more than 3
months should be given all other applicable codes.
8.2.3.1 Paracetamol (acetaminophen)-overuse headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache
B. Regular intake of paracetamol on 15 days per
month for >3 months.
8.2.3.2 Acetylsalicylic acid-overuse headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache
B. Regular intake of acetylsalicylic acid on 15 days
per month for >3 months.
8.2.3.3 Other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
(NSAID)-overuse headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache
B. Regular intake of one or more NSAIDs1 other than
acetylsalicylic acid on 15 days per month for >3
months.
Note:
1. The NSAID(s) will usually be specified in
parenthesis.
8.2.4 Opioid-overuse headache
Diagnostic criteria:
1. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache
2. Regular intake of one or more opioids1 on 10
days per month for >3 months.
Note:
1. The opioid(s) will usually be specified in
parenthesis.
Comments:
Prospective studies indicate that patients overusing
opioids have the highest relapse rate after withdrawal
treatment.
A patient who fulfils the criteria for 8.2.4
Opioid-overuse headache (or one of its subtypes) and
has regularly used or overused other drug(s) for the
acute or symptomatic treatment of headache for more
than 3 months should be given all other applicable
codes.
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8.2.5 Combination-analgesic-overuse1 headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medicationoveruse
headache
B. Regular intake of one or more combinationanalgesic
medications1,2 on 10 days/month for
>3 months.
Notes:
1. The term combination-analgesic is used specifically
for formulations combining drugs of two or more
classes, each with analgesic effect or acting as
adjuvants.
2. The combination-analgesic(s) will usually be specified
in parenthesis.
Comments:
Many combination-analgesics are marketed. They
tend to be widely used by people with headache,
and are very commonly implicated in medicationoveruse
headache. For this reason, 8.2.5
Combination-analgesic-overuse headache has a separate
coding.
The most commonly overused combinationanalgesics
are tablets combining simple analgesics
with opioids, butalbital and/or caffeine.
8.2.6 Medication-overuse headache attributed to multiple
drug classes not individually overused
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache
B. Regular intake of any combination of ergotamine,
triptans, simple analgesics, NSAIDs and/or
opioids1 on a total of 10 days per month for >3
months without overuse of any single drug or drug
class alone.2
Notes:
1. The drugs or drug classes will usually be specified in
parenthesis.
2. 'Without overuse of any single drug or
drug class alone' means criterion B has not
been fulfilled for any of the specific subforms
8.2.1–8.2.5.
8.2.7 Medication-overuse headache attributed to unverified
overuse of multiple drug classes
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache
B. Both of the following:
1. regular intake of any combination of ergotamine,
triptans, simple analgesics, NSAIDs and/
or opioids on 10 days per month for >3
months
2. the identity, quantity and/or pattern of use or
overuse of these classes of drug cannot be reliably
established.
Comment:
Patients who are clearly overusing multiple medications
for acute or symptomatic treatment of headache, but
cannot give an accurate account of what, when or how
much, are encountered not uncommonly. Although a
prospective diary record over several weeks might provide
the information, it would also delay withdrawal,
which is clearly required.
8.2.8 Medication-overuse headache attributed to other
medication
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 8.2 Medication-overuse
headache
B. Regular overuse, on 10 days per month for >3
months, of one or more medications other than
those described above,1 taken for acute or symptomatic
treatment of headache.
Note:
1. The medication(s) will usually be specified in
parenthesis.
8.3 Headache attributed to substance withdrawal
Description:
Headache following, and caused by, withdrawal from
exposure to a medication or other substance.
8.3.1 Caffeine-withdrawal headache
Description:
Headache developing within 24 hours after regular consumption
of caffeine in excess of 200 mg/day for more
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than 2 weeks, which has been interrupted. It resolves
spontaneously within 7 days in the absence of further
consumption.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Caffeine consumption of >200 mg/day for >2
weeks, which has been interrupted or delayed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 24 hours after
last caffeine intake
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache is relieved within 1 hour by intake of
caffeine 100 mg
b) headache has resolved within 7 days after
total caffeine withdrawal
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.3.2 Opioid-withdrawal headache
Description:
Headache developing within 24 hours after daily consumption
of opioid(s) for more than 3 months, which
has been interrupted. It resolves spontaneously within 7
days in the absence of further consumption.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Opioid intake daily for >3 months, which has been
interrupted
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 24 hours after
last opioid intake
2. headache has resolved within 7 days after total
opioid withdrawal
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
8.3.3 Oestrogen-withdrawal headache
Description:
Headache or migraine developing within 5 days
after daily consumption of exogenous oestrogen
for 3 weeks or longer, which has been interrupted
(usually during the pill-free interval of combined
oral contraception or following a course of replacement
or supplementary oestrogen). It resolves
spontaneously within 3 days in the absence of
further consumption.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache or migraine fulfilling criterion C
B. Daily use of exogenous oestrogen for 3 weeks,
which has been interrupted
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache or migraine has developed within 5
days after the last use of oestrogen
2. headache or migraine has resolved within 3 days
of its onset
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Oestrogen-withdrawal following cessation of a course
of exogenous estrogens (such as during the pill-free
interval of combined oral contraceptives or following
a course of replacement or supplementary oestrogen)
can induce headache and/or migraine.
8.3.4 Headache attributed to withdrawal from chronic
use of other substance
Description:
Headache following, and caused by, withdrawal from
chronic use of or exposure to a medication or substance
other than those described above.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Daily intake of a substance other than those
described above for >3 months, which has been
interrupted
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to withdrawal from use of the substance
2. headache has resolved within 3 months after
total withdrawal from use of the substance
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
It has been suggested, but without sufficient evidence,
that withdrawal from chronic use of the following substances
may cause headache: corticosteroids, tricyclic
antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
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(SSRIs), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs).
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Yang WH, Drouin MA, Herbert M, et al. The monosodium
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8.2 Medication-overuse headache
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Ala-Hurula V, Myllyla V and Hokkanen E. Ergotamine abuse:
Results of ergotamine discontinuation with special reference to
the plasma concentrations. Cephalalgia 1982; 2: 189–195.
Ala-Hurula V, Myllyla V, Hokkanen E and Tokola O.
Tolfenamic acid and ergotamine abuse. Headache 1981; 21:
240–242.
Allgulander C. History and current status of sedative-hypnotic
drug use and abuse. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1986; 73: 465–478.
Andersson PG. Ergotamine headache. Headache 1975; 15:
118–121.
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deMarinis M, Janiri L and Agnoli A. Headache in the use and
withdrawal of opiates and other associated substances of
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Diener HC, Dichgans J, Scholz E, et al. Analgesic-induced
chronic headache: Long-term results of withdrawal therapy.
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Evers S, Gralow I, Bauer B, et al. Sumatriptan and ergotamine
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Fanciullaci M, Alessandri M, Pietrini U, et al. Long-term ergotamine
abuse: Effect on adrenergically induced mydriasis. Clin
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Gaist D, Hallas J, Sindrup SH and Gram LF. Is overuse of
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Gossop M, Darke S, Griffiths P, et al. The Severity of
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Granella F, Farina S, Malferrari G and Manzoni GC. Drug
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8.3 Headache attributed to substance withdrawal
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International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 739
9. Headache attributed to infection
9.1 Headache attributed to intracranial infection
9.1.1 Headache attributed to bacterial meningitis
or meningoencephalitis
9.1.1.1 Acute headache attributed to bacterial
meningitis or meningoencephalitis
9.1.1.2 Chronic headache attributed to bacterial
meningitis or meningoencephalitis
9.1.1.3 Persistent headache attributed to past
bacterial meningitis or
meningoencephalitis
9.1.2 Headache attributed to viral meningitis or
encephalitis
9.1.2.1 Headache attributed to viral meningitis
9.1.2.2 Headache attributed to viral encephalitis
9.1.3 Headache attributed to intracranial fungal
or other parasitic infection
9.1.3.1 Acute headache attributed to intracranial
fungal or other parasitic infection
9.1.3.2 Chronic headache attributed to intracranial
fungal or other parasitic
infection
9.1.4 Headache attributed to brain abscess
9.1.5 Headache attributed to subdural empyema
9.2 Headache attributed to systemic infection
9.2.1 Headache attributed to systemic bacterial
infection
9.2.1.1 Acute headache attributed to systemic
bacterial infection
9.2.1.2 Chronic headache attributed to systemic
bacterial infection
9.2.2 Headache attributed to systemic viral
infection
9.2.2.1 Acute headache attributed to systemic
viral infection
9.2.2.2 Chronic headache attributed to systemic
viral infection
9.2.3 Headache attributed to other systemic
infection
9.2.3.1 Acute headache attributed to other systemic
infection
9.2.3.2 Chronic headache attributed to other
systemic infection
Coded elsewhere:
Headache disorders attributed to extracranial infections of
the head (such as ear, eye and sinus infections) are coded
as subtypes of 11. Headache or facial pain attributed to
disorder of the cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses,
teeth, mouth or other facial or cervical structure.
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a headache occurs for the first time in close temporal
relation to an infection, it is coded as a secondary
headache attributed to that infection. This remains true
when the new headache has the characteristics of any of
the primary headache disorders classified in Part one of
ICHD-3 beta. When a pre-existing headache with the
characteristics of a primary headache disorder becomes
chronic, or is made significantly worse (usually meaning
a two-fold or greater increase in frequency and/or
severity), in close temporal relation to an infection,
both the initial headache diagnosis and a diagnosis of
9. Headache attributed to infection (or one of its subtypes)
should be given, provided that there is good evidence
that that infection can cause headache.
Acute, chronic or persistent?
9. Headache attributed to infection is usually the consequence
of active infection, resolving within 3 months of
eradication of the infection. In some cases, depending on
the pathogenic agent, the infection cannot be treated
effectively and remains active. The headache in these
cases may not abate, because the cause remains present,
and after 3 months is referred to as chronic. In other, rarer
cases, the infection resolves or is eradicated but the headache
does not remit; after 3 months, such headache is
termed persistent (in keeping with other secondary headaches).
Accordingly, acute and chronic subforms of headache
attributed to active or recent infection have been
defined, in some cases in contrast to persistent subforms
of post-infectious headache (see for example 9.1.1.1 Acute
headache attributed to bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis,
9.1.1.2 Chronic headache attributed to bacterial
meningitis or meningoencephalitis and 9.1.1.3 Persistent
headache attributed to past bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis).
The purpose is to distinguish and keep
separate two probably different causative mechanisms
and two different management approaches.
Introduction
Headache is a common accompaniment of systemic
viral infections such as influenza. It is also common
with sepsis; more rarely it may accompany other systemic
infections.
In intracranial infections, headache is usually the first
and the most frequently encountered symptom.
Occurrence of a new type of headache which is diffuse
and associated with focal neurological signs and/or
altered mental state, a general feeling of illness and/or
fever should direct attention towards an intracranial
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740 Cephalalgia 33(9)
infection even in the absence of neck stiffness.
Unfortunately, there are no good prospective studies
of the headaches associated with intracranial infection
and the diagnostic criteria for some of the subtypes of 9.1
Headache attributed to intracranial infection are at least
partly reliant on expert consensus (including the views of
experts in neuroinfection) when evidence is lacking.
The general criteria for this chapter, adhered to as
far as possible, are as follows:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. An infection, or sequela of an infection, known to
be able to cause headache has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the infection
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the infection
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the infection
3. headache has characteristics typical for the
infection
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
9.1 Headache attributed to intracranial infection
Description:
Headache of variable duration, and in rare cases persistent,
caused by intracranial bacterial, viral, fungal or
other parasitic infection or by a sequela of any of these.
9.1.1 Headache attributed to bacterial meningitis or
meningoencephalitis
Description:
Headache of variable duration caused by bacterial
meningitis or meningoencephalitis. It may develop in
a context of mild flu-like symptoms. It is typically
acute and associated with neck stiffness, nausea, fever
and changes in mental state and/or other neurological
symptoms and/or signs. In most cases it resolves once
the infection has been eradicated, but rarely it becomes
persistent.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache of any duration fulfilling criterion C
B. Bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis has
been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the bacterial meningitis or
meningoencephalitis
2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the bacterial meningitis or
meningoencephalitis
3. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the bacterial meningitis or
meningoencephalitis
4. headache is either or both of the following:
a) holocranial
b) located in the nuchal area and associated with
neck stiffness
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Headache is the commonest and may be the first symptom
of these infections. 9.1.1 Headache attributed to
bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis should be
suspected whenever headache is associated with fever,
altered mental state (including reduced vigilance), focal
neurological deficits or generalized seizures. In the case
of encephalitis, associated deficits include disturbances
of speech or hearing, double vision, loss of sensation in
some parts of the body, muscle weakness, partial
paralysis in the arms and legs, hallucinations, personality
changes, impaired judgement, loss of consciousness,
sudden severe dementia and/or memory loss.
Nevertheless, in most cases of intracranial bacterial
infection it is extremely difficult to distinguish involvement
purely of the meninges from involvement purely
of the encephalon. Furthermore, this distinction does
not lead to different approaches to evaluation or choice
of treatment. Therefore, headache attributed to bacterial
meningitis and headache attributed to bacterial
encephalitis have been included in the same subgroup
of 9.1.1 Headache attributed to bacterial meningitis or
meningoencephalitis.
A variety of microorganisms may cause meningitis
and/or encephalitis, including Streptococcus pneumoniae,
Neisseria meningitides and Listeria
monocytogenes.
Direct stimulation of the sensory terminals located
in the meninges by the bacterial infection causes the
onset of headache. Bacterial products (toxins), mediators
of inflammation such as bradykinin, prostaglandins
and cytokines and other agents released by
inflammation not only directly cause pain but also
induce pain sensitization and neuropeptide release.
In the case of encephalitis, increased intracranial pressure
may also play a role in causing headache.
In most cases, headache remits with resolution of the
infection. However, the infection may remain active for
International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 741
months, leading to chronic headache. In a minority of
cases, headache persists for more than 3 months after
resolution of the causative infection. Three separate
subforms of 9.1.1 Headache attributed to bacterial
meningitis or meningoencephalitis are therefore
described because pathophysiology and treatment are
different depending on whether the infection has been
completely eradicated or remains active.
9.1.1.1 Acute headache attributed to bacterial meningitis
or meningoencephalitis
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.1.1 Headache
attributed to bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis,
and criterion C below
B. Bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis remains
active or has recently resolved
C. Headache has been present for <3 months.
9.1.1.2 Chronic headache attributed to bacterial meningitis
or meningoencephalitis
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.1.1 Headache
attributed to bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis,
and criterion C below
B. Bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis
remains active or has resolved within the last
3 months
C. Headache has been present for >3 months.
9.1.1.3 Persistent headache attributed to past bacterial
meningitis or meningoencephalitis
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache previously fulfilling criteria for 9.1.1
Headache attributed to bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis,
and fulfilling criterion C below
B. Bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis has
resolved
C. Headache has persisted for >3 months after
resolution of the bacterial meningitis or
meningoencephalitis
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
9.1.2 Headache attributed to viral meningitis or
encephalitis
Description:
Headache caused by viral meningitis or encephalitis,
typically with neck stiffness and fever and variably
associated, according to the extent of the infection,
with neurological symptoms and/or signs including
changes in mental state.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Viral meningitis or encephalitis has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the viral meningitis or encephalitis
2. headache has significantlyworsened in parallelwith
worsening of the viral meningitis or encephalitis
3. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the viral meningitis or
encephalitis
4. headache is either or both of the following:
a) holocranial
b) located in the nuchal area and associated with
neck stiffness
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
9.1.2 Headache attributed to viral meningitis or encephalitis
should be suspected whenever headache is associated
with fever, stiff neck, light sensitivity, nausea
and/or vomiting.
Enteroviruses account for most cases of 9.1.2 Headache
attributed to viral meningitis or encephalitis; Herpes simplex,
adenovirus, mumps and others may also be responsible.
CSF polymerase chain reaction (PCR) gives the
specific diagnosis in the majority of cases. Positive CSF
PCR for Herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 1 or 2 and
serology for HSV-1&2 DNA presume the diagnosis of
Herpes simplex encephalitis. In some cases, CSF PCR is
positive forHuman Herpes virus (HHV)types 6 or 7. It has
been documented that PCR sensitivity is reduced by more
than half when the test is performed 1 week after the onset
of the symptoms, causing false negatives.When PCR performed
after 1 week is negative, the diagnosis can be made
on the basis of an altered CSF/blood antibody ratio.
As with 9.1.1 Headache attributed to bacterial
meningitis or meningoencephalitis, it may be difficult
to distinguish involvement purely of the meninges
from involvement purely of the encephalon. The
distinction is nonetheless important to make and
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742 Cephalalgia 33(9)
maintain, because the two conditions differ prognostically,
the expectation being worse with encephalitic
involvement. For this reason, separate criteria are
given for 9.1.2.1 Headache attributed to viral meningitis
and 9.1.2.2 Headache attributed to viral
encephalitis.
Also at variance from 9.1.1 Headache attributed to
bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis, a persistent
post-infectious subform of 9.1.2 Headache attributed
to viral meningitis or encephalitis is not supported
by evidence and has not, therefore, been
contemplated.
9.1.2.1 Headache attributed to viral meningitis
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.1.2 Headache
attributed to viral meningitis or encephalitis
B. Neuroimaging shows enhancement of the
leptomeninges.
9.1.2.2 Headache attributed to viral encephalitis
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.1.2 Headache
attributed to viral meningitis or encephalitis
B. Either or both of the following:
1. neuroimaging shows diffuse brain oedema
2. at least one of the following:
a) altered mental state
b) focal neurological deficits
c) seizures.
Comment:
9.1.2.2 Headache attributed to viral encephalitis should
be suspected whenever headache is associated with
altered mental state (including impaired vigilance),
focal neurological deficits and/or seizures. Pain is
usually diffuse, with the focus in frontal and/or
retro-orbital areas, severe or extremely severe, throbbing
or pressing type. Other commonly associated
neurological deficits are disturbances of speech or
hearing, double vision, loss of sensation in some
parts of the body, muscle weakness, partial paralysis
in the arms and legs, ataxia, hallucinations,
personality changes, loss of consciousness and/or
memory loss.
9.1.3 Headache attributed to intracranial fungal or other
parasitic infection
Description:
Headache of variable duration caused by intracranial
fungal or other parasitic infection. It is usually observed
in a context of congenital or acquired immunosuppression.
In most cases it resolves once the infection has
been eradicated, but rarely it becomes persistent.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection has
been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the intracranial fungal or other
parasitic infection
2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the intracranial fungal or
other parasitic infection
3. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the intracranial fungal or
other parasitic infection
4. headache develops progressively,1 and is either
or both of the following:
a) holocranial
b) located in the nuchal area and associated with
neck stiffness
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. The clinical symptoms tend to evolve over weeks, in
parallel with the level of immunosuppression.
Comments:
9.1.3 Headache attributed to intracranial fungal or other
parasitic infection should be suspected whenever headache
is associated with fever, progressively altered
mental state (including impaired vigilance) and/or multiple
focal neurological deficits of increasing severity,
and neuroimaging shows enhancement of the leptomeninges
and/or diffuse brain oedema.
Early diagnosis is best made by CT or MRI. Besides
CSF culture and CSF PCR investigations, other tests
on CSF and blood are available. These include direct
detection of the pathogen (cytological detection, microscopic
visualization, culture and identification of fungal
elements in the biological materials under observation)
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ICHD-3 beta 743
and tests for indirect detection of the pathogen (identification
of an antigen or another element of the capsule).
In the case of aspergillosis, the galattomannan
antigen can be detected in biological fluids (serum,
bronchoalveolar washing liquid or CSF). In other systemic
fungal infections, serum 1,3- -D-glucan may be
diagnostically helpful. The India ink test enables staining
of the capsule of cryptococcus.
It is noteworthy that fungal and parasitic infections
of the meninges or encephalon are almost exclusively
observed in immunodepressed patients or old people.
More specifically, the following groups are to be considered
at risk:
1. people with significant neutropaenia (<500 neutrophils/
mm3) detected in close temporal relation to
the infection
2. people who have undergone allogenic graft of stem
cells
3. people undergoing chronic steroid therapy (prednisone
0.3mg/kg/day or equivalent for more than 3 weeks)
4. people with ongoing or recent (within the previous
90 days) treatment with immunosuppressor drugs
(cyclosporine, TNF blockers, monoclonal antibodies,
analogues of nucleosides)
5. people with severe hereditary immunodeficiency.
A persistent post-infectious subform of 9.1.3 Headache
attributed to intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection
is not well supported by evidence; it appears only in
the Appendix as A9.1.3.3 Persistent headache attributed
to past intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection.
9.1.3.1 Acute headache attributed to intracranial fungal
or other parasitic infection
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.1.3 Headache
attributed to intracranial fungal or other parasitic
infection, and criterion C below
B. Intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection
remains active or has recently resolved
C. Headache has been present for <3 months.
9.1.3.2 Chronic headache attributed to intracranial
fungal or other parasitic infection
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.1.3 Headache
attributed to intracranial fungal or other parasitic
infection, and criterion C below
B. Intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection remains
active or has resolved within the last 3 months
C. Headache has been present for >3 months.
9.1.4 Headache attributed to brain abscess
Description:
Headache caused by brain abscess, usually associatedwith
fever, focal neurological deficit(s) and/or altered mental
state (including impaired vigilance).
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A brain abscess has been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
development of the abscess, or led to its discovery
2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with deterioration of the abscess shown by any
of the following:
a) worsening of other symptoms and/or clinical
signs arising from the abscess
b) evidence of enlargement of the abscess
c) evidence of rupture of the abscess
3. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the abscess
4. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) intensity increasing gradually, over several
hours or days, to moderate or severe
b) aggravated by straining or other Valsalva
manoeuvre
c) accompanied by nausea
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The most common organisms causing brain abscess
include streptococcus, staphylococcus aureus, bacteroides
species and enterobacter. Recently, brain abscesses have
also been reported with aspergillosis and blastomycosis.
Predisposing factors include infections of the paranasal
sinuses, ears, jaws, teeth or lungs.
Direct compression and irritation of the meningeal
and/or arterial structures and increased intracranial
pressure are the mechanisms causing 9.1.4 Headache
attributed to brain abscess.
9.1.5 Headache attributed to subdural empyema
Description:
Headache caused by a subdural empyema, usually
associated with fever and symptoms and/or clinical
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744 Cephalalgia 33(9)
signs of meningeal irritation and increased intracranial
pressure.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Subdural empyema has been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
development of the empyema, or led to its
discovery
2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with deterioration of the empyema shown by any
of the following:
a) worsening of other symptoms and/or clinical
signs arising from the empyema
b) evidence of enlargement of the empyema
c) evidence of rupture of the empyema
3. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the empyema
4. headache has either or both of the following
characteristics:
a) unilateral, or more intense on one side
b) associated with tenderness of the skull
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Subdural empyema is often secondary to sinusitis or
otitis media. It may also be a complication of
meningitis.
9.1.5 Headache attributed to subdural empyema is
caused by meningeal irritation, increased intracranial
pressure and/or fever.
9.2 Headache attributed to systemic infection
Coded elsewhere:
Headache attributed to meningitis or encephalitis
accompanying systemic infection should be coded
accordingly under 9.1 Headache attributed to intracranial
infection.
Description:
Headache of variable duration caused by systemic
infection, usually accompanied by other symptoms
and/or clinical signs of the infection.
Comments:
Headache in systemic infections is usually a relatively
inconspicuous symptom, and diagnostically unhelpful.
These conditions are mostly dominated by fever,
general malaise and other systemic symptoms.
Nevertheless, some systemic infections, particularly
influenza, have headache as a prominent symptom
along with fever and others. When systemic infection
is accompanied by meningitis or encephalitis, any headache
attributed to the infection should be coded to
these disorders as a subtype of 9.1 Headache attributed
to intracranial infection.
In infectious disease, headache commonly coexists
with fever and may be dependent on it, but headache
can also occur in the absence of fever. The exact
nature of these mechanisms remains to be investigated.
Meanwhile, the great variability in their propensity for
causing headache indicates that systemic infections do
not have this effect simply through fever and exogenous
or endogenous pyrogens. The mechanisms causing
headache include direct effects of the microorganisms
themselves. Several cells are likely to be involved (activated
microglia and monocytic macrophages, activated
astrocytes and blood-brain barrier and endothelial
cells), along with several immunoinflammatory mediators
(cytokines, glutamate, COX-2/PGE2 system,
NO–iNOS system and reactive oxygen species system).
9.2.1 Headache attributed to systemic bacterial infection
Description:
Headache caused by and occurring in association with
other symptoms and/or clinical signs of a systemic bacterial
infection, in the absence of meningitis or
meningoencephalitis.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache of any duration fulfilling criterion C
B. Both of the following:
1. systemic bacterial infection has been diagnosed
2. there is no evidence of meningitic or meningoencephalitic
involvement
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
onset of the systemic bacterial infection
2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the systemic bacterial
infection
3. headache has significantly improved or resolved
in parallel with improvement in or resolution of
the systemic bacterial infection
4. headache has either or both of the following
characteristics:
a) diffuse pain
b) moderate or severe intensity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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9.2.1.1 Acute headache attributed to systemic bacterial
infection
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.2.1 Headache
attributed to systemic bacterial infection, and criterion
C below
B. The systemic bacterial infection remains active or
has recently resolved
C. Headache has been present for <3 months.
9.2.1.2 Chronic headache attributed to systemic bacterial
infection
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.2.1 Headache
attributed to systemic bacterial infection, and criterion
C below
B. The systemic bacterial infection remains active or
has resolved within the last 3 months
C. Headache has been present for >3 months.
9.2.2 Headache attributed to systemic viral infection
Description:
Headache caused by and occurring in association
with other symptoms and/or clinical signs of a systemic
viral infection, in the absence of meningitis or
encephalitis.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache of any duration fulfilling criterion C
B. Both of the following:
1. systemic viral infection has been diagnosed
2. there is no evidence of meningitic or encephalitic
involvement
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
onset of the systemic viral infection
2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the systemic viral infection
3. headache has significantly improved or resolved
in parallel with improvement in or resolution of
the systemic viral infection
4. headache has either or both of the following
characteristics:
a) diffuse pain
b) moderate or severe intensity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
9.2.2.1 Acute headache attributed to systemic viral
infection
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.2.2 Headache
attributed to systemic viral infection, and criterion
C below
B. The systemic viral infection remains active or has
recently resolved
C. Headache has been present for <3 months.
9.2.2.2 Chronic headache attributed to systemic viral
infection
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.2.2 Headache
attributed to systemic viral infection, and criterion
C below
B. The systemic viral infection remains active or has
resolved within the last 3 months
C. Headache has been present for >3 months.
9.2.3 Headache attributed to other systemic infection
Description:
Headache caused by and occurring in association with
other symptoms and/or clinical signs of a systemic fungal
infection or infestation by protozoal or other parasites,
in the absence of meningitis or meningoencephalitis.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Both of the following:
1. systemic fungal infection, or infestation by protozoal
or other parasites, has been diagnosed
2. there is no evidence of meningitic or meningoencephalitic
involvement
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
onset of the systemic infection or infestation
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746 Cephalalgia 33(9)
2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the systemic infection or
infestation
3. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the systemic infection or
infestation
4. headache has either or both of the following
characteristics:
a) diffuse pain
b) moderate or severe intensity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
This is a heterogenous and ill-defined group of systemic
infections, most frequently seen in immunosuppressed
patients or in specific geographical
areas. The fungi most commonly involved are the
pathogenic fungi (Cryptococcus neoformans,
Histoplasma capsulatum and Coccidioides immitis)
and the opportunistic fungi (Candida species,
Aspergillus species and others). Among protozoa,
Pneumocystis carinii and Toxoplasma gondii infestations
may be associated with headache. Headache
has also been reported with the nematode
Strongyloides stercoralis.
9.2.3.1 Acute headache attributed to other systemic
infection
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.2.3 Headache
attributed to other systemic infection, and criterion
C below
B. The systemic infection remains active or has
recently resolved
C. Headache has been present for <3 months.
9.2.3.2 Chronic headache attributed to other systemic
infection
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 9.2.3 Headache
attributed to other systemic infection, and criterion
C below
B. The systemic infection remains active or has
resolved within the last 3 months
C. Headache has been present for >3 months.
Bibliography
9.1.1 Headache attributed to bacterial meningitis
or meningoencephalitis
Bohr V, Hansen B, Kjersen H, et al. Sequelae from bacterial
meningitis and their relation to the clinical condition during
acute illness, based on 667 questionnaire returns. Part II of a
three part series. J Infect 1983; 7(2): 102–110.
Brooks RG, Licitra CM and Peacock MG. Encephalitis caused
by Coxiella burnetii. Ann Neurol 1986; 20: 91–93.
Drexler ED. Severe headache: When to worry, what to do.
Postgrad Med 1990; 87: 164–170, 173–180.
Francke E. The many causes of meningitis. Postgrad Med 1987;
82: 175–178, 181–183, 187–188.
Gedde-Dahl TW, Lettenstrom GS and Bovre K. Coverage for
meningococcal disease in the Norwegian morbidity and mortality
statistics. NIPH Ann 1980; 3: 31–35.
Helbok R, Broessner G, Pfausler B and Schmutzhard E. Chronic
meningitis. J Neurol 2009; 256: 168–175.
Jones HR and Siekert RG. Neurological manifestation of infective
endocarditis. Brain 1989; 112: 1295–1315.
Pachner AR and Steere AC. Neurological findings of Lyme disease.
Yale Biol Med 1984; 57: 481–483.
Pachner AR and Steere AC. The triad of neurologic manifestations
of Lyme disease: Meningitis, cranial neuritis, and radiculoneuritis.
Neurology 1985; 35: 47–53.
Tonjum T. Nilsson F, Bruun JH and Hanebeg B. The early phase
of meningococcal disease. NIPH Ann 1983; 6: 175–181.
van de Beek D, de Gans J, Spanjaard L, et al. Clinical features
and prognostic factors in adults with bacterial meningitis.
NEJM 2004; 351(18): 1849–1859.
Zhang SR, Zhang YS and Zhao XD. Tuberculous meningitis
with hydrocephalus: A clinical and CT study. Chung Hua Nei
Ko Tsa Chih 1989; 28: 202–204.
9.1.2 Headache attributed to viral meningitis or
encephalitis
Ambrose HE, Granerod J, Clewley JP, et al. UK Aetiology of
Encephalitis Study Group. Diagnostic strategy used to establish
etiologies of encephalitis in a prospective cohort of patients
in England. J Clin Microbiol 2011; 49: 3576–3583.
Davis LE and McLaren LC. Relapsing herpes simplex
encephalitis following antiviral therapy. Ann Neurol 1983; 13:
192–195.
Denes E, Labach C, Durox H, et al. Intrathecal synthesis of
specific antibodies as a marker of herpes simplex encephalitis
in patients with negative PCR. Swiss Med Wkly 2010; 140:
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Desmond RA, Accortt NA, Talley L, et al. Enteroviral meningitis:
Natural history and outcome of pleconaril therapy.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 2409–2414.
Domachowske JB, Cunningham CK, Cummings DL, et al.
Acute manifestations and neurologic sequelae of Epstein-
Barr virus encephalitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996;
15: 871–875.
Domingues RB, Kuster GW, Onuki de Castro FL, et al.
Headache features in patients with dengue virus infection.
Cephalalgia 2006; 26: 879–882.
Farazmand P, Woolley PD and Kinghorn GR. Mollaret's meningitis
and herpes simplex virus type 2 infections. Int J STD
AIDS 2011; 22: 306–307.
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Kennedy PG. Retrospective analysis of 46 cases of simplex encephalitis
seen in Glasgow between 1962 and 1985. OJM 1988;
86: 533–540.
Kennedy PG, Adams IH, Graham DI and Clements GB. A clinico-
pathological study of herpes simplex encephalitis.
Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1998; 14: 395–415.
Mutton K and Guiver M. Laboratory techniques for human viral
encephalitis diagnosis. Infect Disord Drug Targets 2011; 11(3):
206–234.
Poneprasert B. Japanese encephalitis in children in northern
Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1989;
20:599–603.
Poulikakos PJ, Sergi EE, Margaritis AS, et al. A case of recurrent
benign lymphocytic (Mollaret's) meningitis and review of the
literature. J Infect Public Health 2010; 3: 192–195.
Saged JI, Weinstein Mo and Miller DC. Chronic encephalitis
possibly due to herpes simplex virus: Two cases. Neurology
1985; 35: 1470–1472.
Sauerbrei A and Wutzler P. Laboratory diagnosis of central nervous
system infections caused by herpesviruses. J Clin Virol
2002; 25 Suppl 1: S45–S51.
Singer JI, Maur PR, Riley JP and Smith PB. Management of
central nervous system infections during an epidemic of enteroviral
aseptic meningitis. J Pediatr 1980; 96: 559–563.
Takeuchi S, Takasato Y, Masaoka H, et al. Hemorrhagic encephalitis
associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection. J Clin
Neurosci 2010; 17: 153–154.
9.1.3 Headache attributed to intracranial fungal or
other parasitic infection
Cochius JI, Burns RJ and Willoughby JO. CNS cryptococcosis:
Unusual aspects. Clin Exp Neurol 1989; 26: 183–191.
Contini C. Clinical and diagnostic management of toxoplasmosis
in the immunocompromised patient. Parassitologia 2008; 50:
45–50.
Drake KW and Adam RD. Coccidioidal meningitis and brain
abscesses: Analysis of 71 cases at a referral center. Neurology
2009; 73: 1780–1786.
Onishi A, Sugiyama D, Kogata Y, et al. Diagnostic
accuracy of serum 1,3- -D-glucan for pneumocystis jiroveci
pneumonia, invasive candidiasis, and invasive aspergillosis:
Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Microbiol 2012;
50: 7–15.
Patil SA, Katyayani S and Arvind N. Significance of antibody
detection in the diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis.
J Immunoassay Immunochem 2012; 33: 140–148.
Prandota J. Recurrent headache as the main symptom of
acquired cerebral toxoplasmosis in nonhuman immunodeficiency
virus-infected subjects with no lymphadenopathy: The
parasite may be responsible for the neurogenic inflammation
postulated as a cause of different types of headaches. Am J
Ther 2007; 14: 63–105.
Singh RR, Chaudhary SK, Bhatta NK, et al. Clinical and etiological
profile of acute febrile encephalopathy in eastern Nepal.
Indian J Pediatr 2009; 76: 1109–1111.
9.1.4 Headache attributed to brain abscess
Chalstrey S, Pfleiderer AG and Moffat DA. Persisting incidence
and mortality of sinogenic cerebral abscess: A continuing
reflection of late clinical diagnosis. J R Soc Med 1991; 84:
193–195.
Chun CH, Johnson JD, Hofstetter M and Raff MJ. Brain
abscess: A study of 45 consecutive cases. Medicine 1986; 65:
415–431.
Harris LF, Maccubbin DA, Triplett JN and Haws FB. Brain
abscess: Recent experience at a community hospital. South
Med J 1985; 78: 704–707.
Kulay A, Ozatik N and Topucu I. Otogenic intracranial
abscesses. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1990; 107: 140–146.
Seven H, Coskun BU, Calis AB, et al. Intracranial abscesses
associated with chronic suppurative otitis media. Eur Arch
Otorhinolaryngol 2005; 262: 847–851.
Yen PT, Chan ST and Huang TS. Brain abscess: With special
reference to otolaryngologic sources of infection. Otolaryngol
Head Neck Surg 1995; 113: 15–22.
9.1.5 Headache attributed to subdural empyema
Hodges J, Anslow P and Gillet G. Subdural empyema:
Continuing diagnostic problems in the CT scan era. QJM
1986; 59: 387–393.
Leotta N, Chaseling R, Duncan G and Isaacs D. Intracranial
suppuration. J Paediatr Child Health 2005; 41: 508–512.
McIntyre PB, Lavercombe PS, Kemp RJ and McCormack JG.
Subdural and epidural empyema: Diagnostic and therapeutic
problems. Med J Aust 1991; 154: 653–657.
Sellik JA. Epidural abscess and subdural empyema. J Am
Osteopath Assoc 1989; 89: 806–810.
9.2 Headache attributed to systemic infection
Arredondo M, Hackett J, de Bethencourt FR, et al. Prevalence of
XMRV infection in different risk populations in Spain. AIDS
Res Hum Retroviruses 2012; 28: 1089–1094.
Capelli E, Zola R, Lorusso L, et al. Chronic fatigue syndrome/
myalgic encephalomyelitis: An update. Int J Immunopathol
Pharmacol 2010; 23(4): 981–989.
De Marinis M and Welch KM, Headache associated with noncephalic
infections: Classification and mechanisms.
Cephalalgia 1992; 12: 197–201.
Hou CC, Lin H, Chang CP, et al. Oxidative stress and pyrogenic
fever pathogenesis. Eur J Pharmacol 2011; 667(1–3): 6–12.
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10. Headache attributed to disorder of
homoeostasis
10.1 Headache attributed to hypoxia and/or hypercapnia
10.1.1 High-altitude headache
10.1.2 Headache attributed to aeroplane travel
10.1.3 Diving headache
10.1.4 Sleep apnoea headache
10.2 Dialysis headache
10.3 Headache attributed to arterial hypertension
10.3.1 Headache attributed to
phaeochromocytoma
10.3.2 Headache attributed to hypertensive crisis
without hypertensive encephalopathy
10.3.3 Headache attributed to hypertensive
encephalopathy
10.3.4 Headache attributed to pre-eclampsia or
eclampsia
10.3.5 Headache attributed to autonomic
dysreflexia
10.4 Headache attributed to hypothyroidism
10.5 Headache attributed to fasting
10.6 Cardiac cephalalgia
10.7 Headache attributed to other disorder of
homoeostasis
Coded elsewhere:
7.1.2 Headache attributed to intracranial hypertension
secondary to metabolic, toxic or hormonal causes.
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a headache occurs for the first time in close temporal
relation to a disorder of homoeostasis, it is coded
as a secondary headache attributed to that disorder.
This remains true when the new headache has the characteristics
of any of the primary headache disorders
classified in Part one of ICHD-3 beta. When a preexisting
headache with the characteristics of a primary
headache disorder becomes chronic, or is made significantly
worse (usually meaning a two-fold or greater
increase in frequency and/or severity), in close temporal
relation to a disorder of homoeostasis, both the initial
headache diagnosis and a diagnosis of 10. Headache
attributed to a disorder of homoeostasis (or one of its
subtypes) should be given, provided that there is good
evidence that that disorder can cause headache.
Introduction
The mechanisms behind causation of the various subtypes
of 10. Headache attributed to disorder of
homoeostasis are various. Nevertheless, it is possible
to set out general diagnostic criteria, applicable in
most cases, as follows:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A disorder of homoeostasis known to be able to
cause headache has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the disorder of homoeostasis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the disorder of
homoeostasis
b) headache has significantly improved after
resolution of the disorder of homoeostasis
3. headache has characteristics typical for the disorder
of homoeostasis
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
10.1 Headache attributed to hypoxia and/or hypercapnia
Description:
Headache caused by hypoxia and/or hypercapnia and
occurring in conditions of exposure to one or both.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Exposure to conditions of hypoxia and/or
hypercapnia
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least one
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the exposure
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with increasing exposure to hypoxia and/or
hypercapnia
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in hypoxia and/or
hypercapnia
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
10.1.1 High-altitude headache
Description:
Headache, usually bilateral and aggravated by exertion,
caused by ascent above 2500 metres. It resolves spontaneously
within 24 hours after descent.
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Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Ascent to altitude above 2500 m has taken place
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the ascent
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with continuing ascent
b) headache has resolved within 24 hours after
descent to below 2500 m
3. headache has at least two of the following three
characteristics:
a) bilateral location
b) mild or moderate intensity
c) aggravated by exertion, movement, straining,
coughing and/or bending
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
10.1.1 High-altitude headache is a frequent complication
of ascent to altitude, occurring in more than
30% of mountaineers. Risk factors include a history
of 1. Migraine, low arterial oxygen saturation, high
perceived degree of exertion and fluid intake below 2
litres in 24 hours.
Most cases of 10.1.1 High-altitude headache respond
to simple analgesics such as paracetamol (acetaminophen)
or ibuprofen. However, acute mountain sickness
(AMS) consists of at least moderate headache combined
with one or more of nausea, anorexia, fatigue,
photophobia, dizziness and sleep disturbances.
Acetazolamide (125 mg, two to three times daily) and
steroids may reduce susceptibility to AMS. Other preventative
strategies include 2 days of acclimatization
prior to engaging in strenuous exercise at high altitudes,
liberal fluid intake and avoidance of alcohol.
10.1.2 Headache attributed to aeroplane travel
Description:
Headache, often severe, usually unilateral and periocular
and without autonomic symptoms, occurring
during and caused by aeroplane travel. It remits after
landing.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two episodes of headache fulfilling
criterion C
B. The patient is travelling by aeroplane
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed exclusively during aeroplane
travel
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has worsened in temporal relation
to ascent after take-off and/or descent prior
to landing of the aeroplane
b) headache has spontaneously improved within
30 minutes after the ascent or descent of the
aeroplane is completed
3. headache is severe, with at least two of the following
three characteristics:
a) unilateral location
b) orbitofrontal location (parietal spread may
occur)
c) jabbing or stabbing quality (pulsation may
also occur)
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
10.1.2 Headache attributed to aeroplane travel occurs
during landing in more than 85% of patients. Sideshift
between different flights occurs in around 10%
of cases. Nasal congestion, a stuffy feeling of the face
or tearing may occur ipsilaterally, but these have been
described in fewer than 5% of cases.
The presence of a sinus disorder should be excluded.
10.1.3 Diving headache
Coded elsewhere:
1. Migraine, 2. Tension-type headache, 4.2 Primary
exercise headache, 4.5 Cold-stimulus headache, 4.6.1
External compression headache and 11.2.1 Cervicogenic
headache can occur during a dive. In these instances,
diving should be considered a precipitating factor
rather than the cause, and the headache should be
coded as these disorders accordingly.
Description:
Headache caused by diving below 10 metres, occurring
during the dive and often intensified on resurfacing, in
the absence of decompression illness. It is usually
accompanied by symptoms of carbon dioxide intoxication.
It remits quickly with oxygen or, if this is not
given, spontaneously within 3 days after the dive has
ended.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Both of the following:
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1. the patient is diving at a depth greater than
10m
2. there is no evidence of decompression illness
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least one
of the following:
1. headache has developed during the dive
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has worsened as the dive is
continued
b) either of the following:
(i) headache has spontaneously resolved
within 3 days of completion of the dive
(ii) headache has remitted within 1 hour after
treatment with 100% oxygen
3. at least one of the following symptoms of CO2
intoxication:
a) mental confusion
b) light-headedness
c) motor incoordination
d) dyspnoea
e) facial flushing
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
There is some evidence that hypercapnia in the
absence of hypoxia is associated with headache. The
best clinical example of headache attributed to hypercapnia
is 10.1.3 Diving headache. Hypercapnia
(arterial pCO2 >50 mmHg) is known to cause relaxation
of cerebrovascular smooth muscle, leading to
intracranial vasodilatation and increased intracranial
pressure. Carbon dioxide may accumulate in a diver
who intentionally holds his or her breath intermittently
(skip breathing) in a mistaken attempt to conserve
air, or takes shallow breaths to minimize
buoyancy variations in the narrow passages of a
wreck or cave. Divers may also hypoventilate unintentionally
when a tight wetsuit or buoyancy compensator
jacket restricts chest wall expansion, or when
ventilation is inadequate in response to physical exertion.
Strenuous exercise increases the rate of CO2
production more than 10-fold, resulting in a transient
elevation of pCO2 to more than 60 mmHg. 10.1.3
Diving headache usually intensifies during the decompression
phase of the dive or on resurfacing.
10.1.4 Sleep apnoea headache
Description:
Morning headache, usually bilateral and with a duration
of less than 4 hours, caused by sleep apnoea. The
disorder resolves with successful treatment of the sleep
apnoea.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache present on awakening after sleep and fulfilling
criterion C
B. Sleep apnoea (apnoea-hypopnoea index 5) has
been diagnosed1
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of sleep apnoea
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has worsened in parallel with worsening
of sleep apnoea
b) headache has significantly improved or
remitted in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of sleep apnoea
3. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) recurs on >15 days per month
b) all of the following:
(i) bilateral location
(ii) pressing quality
(iii) not accompanied by nausea, photophobia
or phonophobia
c) resolves within 4 hours
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. The apnoea-hypopnoea index is calculated by
dividing the number of apnoeic events by
the number of hours of sleep (5–15/hours¼mild;
15–30/hours¼moderate; >30/hours¼severe).
Comments:
10.1.4 Sleep apnoea headache seems to be less frequent
and of longer duration than previously
assumed. A definitive diagnosis requires overnight
polysomnography. Although morning headache is significantly
more common in patients with sleep apnoea
than in the general population, headache present on
awakening is a non-specific symptom which occurs in
a variety of primary and secondary headache disorders,
in sleep-related respiratory disorders other than
sleep apnoea (e.g. Pickwickian syndrome, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disorder), and in other primary
sleep disorders such as periodic leg movements
of sleep.
It is unclear whether the mechanism of 10.1.4 Sleep
apnoea headache is related to hypoxia, hypercapnia or
disturbance in sleep.
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10.2 Dialysis headache
Description:
Headache with no specific characteristics occurring
during and caused by haemodialysis. It resolves spontaneously
within 72 hours after the haemodialysis session
has ended.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least three episodes of acute headache fulfilling
criterion C
B. The patient is on haemodialysis
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. each headache has developed during a session of
haemodialysis
2. either or both of the following:
a) each headache has worsened during the dialysis
session
b) each headache has resolved within 72 hours
after the end of the dialysis session
3. headache episodes cease altogether after successful
kidney transplantation and termination of
haemodialysis
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
10.2 Dialysis headache commonly occurs in association
with hypotension and dialysis disequilibrium syndrome.
This syndrome may begin as headache and
then progress to obtundation and finally coma, with
or without seizures. It is relatively rare, and may be
prevented by changing dialysis parameters.
Low magnesium and high sodium levels may be risk
factors for developing 10.2 Dialysis headache.
As caffeine is rapidly removed by dialysis,
8.3.1 Caffeine-withdrawal headache should be considered
in patients who consume large quantities of
caffeine.
10.3 Headache attributed to arterial hypertension
Description:
Headache, often bilateral and pulsating, caused by
arterial hypertension, usually during an acute rise in
systolic (to 180 mmHg) and/or diastolic (to 120
mmHg) blood pressure. It remits after normalization
of blood pressure.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Hypertension defined as systolic pressure 180
mmHg and/or diastolic pressure 120 mmHg has
been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of hypertension
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening hypertension
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in hypertension
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Mild (140–159/90–99 mmHg) or moderate (160–179/
100–109 mmHg) chronic arterial hypertension does
not appear to cause headache. Whether moderate
hypertension predisposes to headache at all remains
controversial, but there is some evidence that it does.
Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in patients
with mild and moderate hypertension has shown no
convincing relationship between blood pressure fluctuations
over a 24-hour period and presence or absence of
headache.
10.3.1 Headache attributed to phaeochromocytoma
Coded elsewhere:
When hypertensive encephalopathy is present, headache
is coded as 10.3.3 Headache attributed to hypertensive
encephalopathy. When the diagnosis of phaeochromocytoma
has not yet been made, and hypertensive encephalopathy
is not present, patients may meet the diagnostic
criteria for 10.3.2 Headache attributed to hypertensive
crisis without hypertensive encephalopathy.
Description:
Headache attacks, usually severe and of short duration
(less than 1 hour) and accompanied by sweating,
palpitations, pallor and/or anxiety, caused by
phaeochromocytoma.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent discrete short-lasting headache episodes
fulfilling criterion C
B. Phaeochromocytoma has been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache episodes have commenced in temporal
relation to development of the phaeochromocytoma,
or led to its discovery
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2. either or both of the following:
a) individual headache episodes develop in temporal
relation to abrupt rises in blood
pressure
b) individual headache episodes remit in temporal
relation to normalization of blood
pressure
3. headache is accompanied by at least one of the
following:
a) sweating
b) palpitations
c) anxiety
d) pallor
4. headache episodes remit entirely after removal
of the phaeochromocytoma
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
10.3.1 Headache attributed to phaeochromocytoma
occurs as a paroxysmal headache in 51–80% of patients
with phaeochromocytoma. It is often severe, frontal or
occipital and usually described as either pulsating or
constant in quality. An important feature of the headache
is its short duration: less than 15 minutes in 50%
and less than 1 hour in 70% of patients. Associated
features include apprehension and/or anxiety, often
with a sense of impending death, tremor, visual disturbances,
abdominal or chest pain, nausea, vomiting and
occasionally paraesthesia. The face can blanch or flush
during the attack.
The diagnosis of phaeochromocytoma is established
by the demonstration of increased excretion of catecholamines
or catecholamine metabolites, and can usually
be secured by analysis of a single 24-hour urine sample
collected when the patient is hypertensive or
symptomatic.
10.3.2 Headache attributed to hypertensive crisis
without hypertensive encephalopathy
Coded elsewhere:
10.3.1 Headache attributed to phaeochromocytoma.
Description:
Headache, usually bilateral and pulsating, caused by a
paroxysmal rise of arterial hypertension (systolic 180
mmHg and/or diastolic 120 mmHg). It remits after
normalization of blood pressure.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Both of the following:
1. a hypertensive crisis1 is occurring
2. there are no clinical features or other evidence of
hypertensive encephalopathy
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed during the hypertensive
crisis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with increasing hypertension
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the hypertensive crisis
3. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) bilateral location
b) pulsating quality
c) precipitated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. A hypertensive crisis is defined as a paroxysmal rise
in systolic (to 180 mmHg) and/or diastolic (to
120 mmHg) blood pressure.
Comment:
Paroxysmal hypertension may occur in association with
failure of baroreceptor reflexes (after carotid endarterectomy
or subsequent to irradiation of the neck) or in
patients with enterochromaffin cell tumours.
10.3.3 Headache attributed to hypertensive
encephalopathy
Description:
Headache, usually bilateral and pulsating, caused by
persistent blood pressure elevation to 180/120 mmHg
or above and accompanied by symptoms of encephalopathy
such as confusion, lethargy, visual disturbances
or seizures. It improves after normalization of blood
pressure.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Hypertensive encephalopathy has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the hypertensive encephalopathy
2. either or both of the following:
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a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the hypertensive
encephalopathy
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the hypertensive encephalopathy
3. headache has at least two of the following three
characteristics:
a) diffuse pain
b) pulsating quality
c) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Hypertensive encephalopathy presents with persistent
elevation of blood pressure to 180/120 mmHg and
at least two of confusion, reduced level of consciousness,
visual disturbances including blindness, and seizures.
It is thought to occur when compensatory
cerebrovascular vasoconstriction can no longer prevent
cerebral hyperperfusion as blood pressure rises. As
normal cerebral autoregulation of blood flow is overwhelmed,
endothelial permeability increases and cerebral
oedema occurs. On MRI, this is often most
prominent in the parieto-occipital white matter.
Although hypertensive encephalopathy in patients
with chronic arterial hypertension is usually accompanied
by a diastolic blood pressure of >120 mmHg, and
by grade III or IV hypertensive retinopathy (Keith-
Wagener-Barker classification), previously normotensive
individuals may develop signs of encephalopathy
with blood pressures as low as 160/100 mmHg.
Hypertensive retinopathy may not be present at the
time of clinical presentation.
Any cause of hypertension can lead to hypertensive
encephalopathy. Headache attributed to hypertensive
encephalopathy should be coded as 10.3.3 Headache
attributed to hypertensive encephalopathy, regardless of
the underlying cause.
10.3.4 Headache attributed to pre-eclampsia or eclampsia
Description:
Headache, usually bilateral and pulsating, occurring in
women during pregnancy or the immediate puerperium
with pre-eclampsia or eclampsia. It remits after resolution
of the pre-eclampsia or eclampsia.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache, in a woman who is pregnant or in the
puerperium (up to 4 weeks postpartum), fulfilling
criterion C
B. Pre-eclampsia or eclampsia has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the pre-eclampsia or eclampsia
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the pre-eclampsia or
eclampsia
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the pre-eclampsia or eclampsia
3. headache has at least two of the following three
characteristics:
a) bilateral location
b) pulsating quality
c) aggravated by physical activity
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Pre-eclampsia and eclampsia appear to involve a strong
maternal inflammatory response, with broad immunological
systemic activity. A placenta appears essential
for their development, although case reports indicate
that eclampsia can occur in the puerperium as well as
during pregnancy.
Pre-eclampsia and eclampsia are multi-system disorders
with various forms. Their diagnosis requires hypertension
(>140/90 mmHg) documented on two blood
pressure readings at least 4 hours apart, or a rise in
diastolic pressure of 15 mmHg or in systolic pressure
of 30 mmHg, coupled with urinary protein excretion
>0.3 g/24 hours. In addition, tissue oedema, thrombocytopaenia
and abnormalities in liver function can occur.
10.3.5 Headache attributed to autonomic dysreflexia
Description:
Throbbing severe headache, with sudden onset, in
patients with spinal cord injury and autonomic dysreflexia.
The latter, which can be life-threatening, manifests
as a paroxysmal rise in blood pressure among
other symptoms and clinical signs, and is often triggered
by bladder or bowel irritation (by infection, distension
or impaction).
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache of sudden onset, fulfilling criterion C
B. Presence of spinal cord injury and autonomic dysreflexia
documented by a paroxysmal rise above baseline
in systolic pressure of 30 mmHg and/or
diastolic pressure 20 mmHg
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754 Cephalalgia 33(9)
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the rise in blood pressure
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with increase in blood pressure
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with decrease in blood pressure
3. headache has at least two of the following four
characteristics:
a) severe intensity
b) pounding or throbbing (pulsating) quality
c) accompanied by diaphoresis cranial to the
level of the spinal cord injury
d) triggered by bladder or bowel reflexes
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The time to onset of autonomic dysreflexia after spinal
cord injury is variable and has been reported from 4
days to 15 years.
Given that autonomic dysreflexia can be a lifethreatening
condition, its prompt recognition and adequate
management are critical. Typically, 10.3.5
Headache attributed to autonomic dysreflexia is a
sudden-onset, severe headache accompanied by several
other symptoms and clinical signs including increased
blood pressure, altered heart rate and diaphoresis cranial
to the level of spinal cord injury. These are triggered
by noxious or non-noxious stimuli, usually of
visceral origin (bladder distension, urinary tract infection,
bowel distension or impaction, urological procedures,
gastric ulcer and others) but also of somatic
origin (pressure ulcers, ingrown toenail, burns,
trauma or surgical or invasive diagnostic procedures).
10.4 Headache attributed to hypothyroidism
Description:
Headache, usually bilateral and non-pulsatile, in
patients with hypothyroidism and remitting after normalization
of thyroid hormone levels.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Hypothyroidism has been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of hypothyroidism, or led to its
discovery
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the hypothyroidism
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the hypothyroidism
3. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) bilateral location
b) non-pulsatile quality
c) constant over time
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
It has been estimated that approximately 30% of
patients with hypothyroidism suffer from 10.4
Headache attributed to hypothyroidism. Its mechanism
is unclear. There is a female preponderance and often a
history of migraine in childhood. The headache is not
associated with nausea or vomiting.
In the presence of hypothyroidism, headache can
also be a manifestation of pituitary adenoma (coded
7.4.3 Headache attributed to hypothalamic or pituitary
hyper- or hyposecretion).
10.5 Headache attributed to fasting
Coded elsewhere:
An episode of migraine triggered by fasting is coded as
1. Migraine or one of its subtypes.
Description:
Diffuse non-pulsating headache, usually mild to moderate,
occurring during and caused by fasting for at
least 8 hours. It is relieved after eating.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Diffuse headache not fulfilling the criteria for 1.
Migraine or any of its subtypes but fulfilling criterion
C below
B. The patient has fasted for 8 hours
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed during fasting
2. headache has significantly improved after eating
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
10.5 Headache attributed to fasting is significantly more
common in people who have a prior history of
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headache. Even though the typical headache attributed
to fasting is diffuse, non-pulsating and mild to moderate
in intensity, in those with a prior history of migraine
the headache may resemble 1.1 Migraine without aura.
If the criteria for this disorder are met, the headache
should be coded accordingly (fasting being a precipitating
factor).
The likelihood of headache developing as a result
of a fast increases with the duration of the fast.
Nevertheless, 10.5 Headache attributed to fasting
does not appear to be related to duration of sleep,
to caffeine withdrawal or to hypoglycaemia.
Although headache may occur under conditions of
hypoglycaemia-induced brain dysfunction, there is no
conclusive evidence to support a causal association.
10.5 Headache attributed to fasting can occur in the
absence of hypoglycaemia, insulin-induced hypoglycaemia
does not precipitate headache in migraine sufferers,
and headache is not a complaint of patients
presenting to the emergency department with symptomatic
hypoglycaemia.
10.6 Cardiac cephalalgia
Description:
Migraine-like headache, usually but not always aggravated
by exercise, occurring during an episode of myocardial
ischaemia. It is relieved by nitroglycerine.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Acute myocardial ischaemia has been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
onset of acute myocardial ischaemia
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the myocardial
ischaemia
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the myocardial ischaemia
3. headache has at least two of the following four
characteristics:
a) moderate to severe intensity
b) accompanied by nausea
c) not accompanied by phototophia or
phonophobia
d) aggravated by exertion
4. headache is relieved by nitroglycerine or derivatives
of it
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Diagnosis must include careful documentation of headache
and simultaneous cardiac ischaemia during treadmill
or nuclear cardiac stress testing. However, 10.6
Cardiac cephalalgia occurring at rest has been
described.
Failure to recognize and correctly diagnose 10.6
Cardiac cephalalgia can have serious consequences.
Therefore, distinguishing this disorder from 1.1
Migraine without aura is of crucial importance, particularly
as vasoconstrictor medications (e.g. triptans,
ergots) are indicated in the treatment of migraine but
contraindicated in patients with ischaemic heart disease.
Both disorders can produce severe head pain
accompanied by nausea, and both can be triggered by
exertion. Migraine-like headache may be triggered by
angina treatment such as nitroglycerine.
10.7 Headache attributed to other disorder of
homoeostasis
Description:
Headache caused by any disorder of homoeostasis not
described above.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A disorder of homoeostasis other than those
described above, and known to be able to cause
headache, has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the disorder of homoeostasis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the disorder of
homoeostasis
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the disorder of homoeostasis
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Although relationships between headache and a variety
of systemic and metabolic diseases have been proposed,
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systematic evaluation of these relationships has not
been performed and there is insufficient evidence on
which to build operational diagnostic criteria.
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10.1.4 Sleep apnoea headache
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10.2 Dialysis headache
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10.4 Headache attributed to hypothyroidism
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10.5 Headache attributed to fasting
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10.6 Cardiac cephalalgia
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11. Headache or facial pain attributed to
disorder of the cranium, neck, eyes, ears,
nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or other facial
or cervical structure
11.1 Headache attributed to disorder of cranial bone
11.2 Headache attributed to disorder of the neck
11.2.1 Cervicogenic headache
11.2.2 Headache attributed to retropharyngeal
tendonitis
11.2.3 Headache attributed to craniocervical
dystonia
11.3 Headache attributed to disorder of the eyes
11.3.1 Headache attributed to acute glaucoma
11.3.2 Headache attributed to refractive error
11.3.3 Headache attributed to heterophoria or
heterotropia (latent or persistent squint)
11.3.4 Headache attributed to ocular inflammatory
disorder
11.3.5 Headache attributed to trochleitis
11.4 Headache attributed to disorder of the ears
11.5 Headache attributed to disorder of the nose or
paranasal sinuses
11.5.1 Headache attributed to acute rhinosinusitis
11.5.2 Headache attributed to chronic or recurring
rhinosinusitis
11.6 Headache attributed to disorder of the teeth or
jaw
11.7 Headache attributed to temporomandibular disorder
(TMD)
11.8 Head or facial pain attributed to inflammation of
the stylohyoid ligament
11.9 Headache or facial pain attributed to other disorder
of cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses,
teeth, mouth or other facial or cervical structure
Coded elsewhere:
Headaches that are caused by head or neck trauma are
classified under 5. Headache attributed to trauma or
injury to the head and/or neck. This is true in particular
for post-whiplash headache, despite the likely possibility
that these headaches are attributable to pathology
in the neck. Neuralgiform headaches manifesting with
facial, neck and/or head pain are classified under 13.
Painful cranial neuropathies and other facial pains.
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
When a headache occurs for the first time in close temporal
relation to a cranial, cervical, facial, neck, eye, ear,
nose, sinus, dental or mouth disorder known to cause
headache, it is coded as a secondary headache attributed
to that disorder. This remains true when the new
headache has the characteristics of any of the primary
headache disorders classified in Part one of ICHD-3
beta. When a pre-existing headache with the characteristics
of a primary headache disorder becomes chronic,
or is made significantly worse (usually meaning a twofold
or greater increase in frequency and/or severity), in
close temporal relation to a cranial, cervical, facial, neck,
eye, ear, nose, sinus, dental or mouth disorder, both the
initial headache diagnosis and a diagnosis of 11.
Headache or facial pain attributed to disorder of the cranium,
neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or other
facial or cervical structure (or one of its subtypes) should
be given, provided that there is good evidence that that
disorder can cause headache.
Introduction
Disorders of the cervical spine and of other structures
of the neck and head have not infrequently been
regarded as common causes of headache, as many
headaches seem to originate from the cervical, nuchal
or occipital regions or are localized there. Degenerative
changes in the cervical spine can be found in virtually
all people over 40 years of age. However, large-scale
controlled studies have shown that such changes are
equally widespread among people with and people
without headache. Spondylosis or osteochondrosis are
therefore not conclusive as the explanation of headache.
A similar situation applies to other widespread
disorders: chronic sinusitis, temporomandibular disorders
and refractive errors of the eyes.
Without specific criteria it would be possible for virtually
any type of headache to be classified as 11.
Headache or facial pain attributed to disorder of the
cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or
other facial or cervical structure. It is not sufficient
merely to list manifestations of headaches in order to
define them, as these manifestations are not unique.
The purpose of the criteria in this chapter is not to
describe headaches in all their possible subforms, but
rather to establish specific causal relationships between
headaches and facial pain and the disorders of the cranium,
neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth and
other facial or cranial structures where these exist. For
this reason it has been necessary to identify strict specific
operational criteria for cervicogenic headache and
other causes of headache described in this chapter. It is
not possible here to take account of diagnostic tests
that are unconfirmed or for which quality criteria
have not been investigated. Instead, the aim of the
revised criteria is to motivate the development of reliable
and valid operational tests to establish specific
causal relationships between headaches and craniocervical
disorders.
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For these reasons, and because of the variety of causative
disorders dealt with in this chapter, it is difficult
to describe a general set of criteria for headache and/or
facial pain attributed to them. However, in most cases
there is conformity with the following:
A. Headache or facial pain fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical, laboratory and/or imaging evidence of a
disorder or lesion of the cranium, neck, eyes, ears,
nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or other facial or cervical
structure known to be able to cause headache
C. Evidence that the pain can be attributed to the disorder
or lesion
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
11.1 Headache attributed to disorder of cranial bone
Description:
Headache caused by a disorder or lesion of the cranial
bones.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical, laboratory and/or imaging evidence of a
disorder or lesion of the cranial bones known to
be able to cause headache
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the cranial bone disorder or appearance
of the lesion
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the cranial bone disorder
or lesion
b) headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the cranial bone disorder
or lesion
3. headache is exacerbated by pressure applied to
the cranial bone lesion
4. headache is localized to the site of the cranial
bone lesion
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Most disorders of the skull (e.g. congenital abnormalities,
fractures, tumours, metastases) are usually not
accompanied by headache. Exceptions of importance
are osteomyelitis, multiple myeloma and Paget's disease.
Headache may also be caused by lesions of the
mastoid, and by petrositis.
11.2 Headache attributed to a disorder of the neck
Coded elsewhere:
Headache caused by neck trauma is classified under 5.
Headache attributed to trauma or injury to the head and/
or neck or one of its subtypes.
Description:
Headache caused by a disorder involving any structure
in the neck, including bony, muscular and other soft
tissue elements.
11.2.1 Cervicogenic headache
Coded elsewhere:
Headache causally associated with cervical myofascial
pain sources (myofascial trigger points) may, if it
meets other criteria, be coded as 2.1.1 Infrequent episodic
tension-type headache associated with pericranial
tenderness, 2.2.1 Frequent episodic tension-type headache
associated with pericranial tenderness or 2.3.1
Chronic tension-type headache associated with pericranial
tenderness. It seems appropriate to add an
Appendix diagnosis A11.2.5 Headache attributed to
cervical myofascial pain, and await evidence that
this type of headache is more closely related to
other cervicogenic headaches than to 2. Tension-type
headache. Clearly, there are many cases that overlap
these two categories, for which diagnosis can be
challenging.
Description:
Headache caused by a disorder of the cervical spine
and its component bony, disc and/or soft tissue elements,
usually but not invariably accompanied by
neck pain.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical, laboratory and/or imaging evidence of a
disorder or lesion within the cervical spine or soft
tissues of the neck, known to be able to cause
headache
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the cervical disorder or appearance
of the lesion
2. headache has significantly improved or resolved
in parallel with improvement in or resolution of
the cervical disorder or lesion
3. cervical range of motion is reduced and headache
is made significantly worse by provocative
manoeuvres
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4. headache is abolished following diagnostic blockade
of a cervical structure or its nerve supply
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Features that tend to distinguish 11.2.1 Cervicogenic
headache from 1. Migraine and 2. Tension-type headache
include side-locked pain, provocation of typical
headache by digital pressure on neck muscles and by
head movement, and posterior-to-anterior radiation of
pain. However, although these may be features of
11.2.1 Cervicogenic headache, they are not unique to
it, and they do not necessarily define causal relationships.
Migrainous features such as nausea, vomiting
and photo/phonophobia may be present with 11.2.1
Cervicogenic headache, although to a generally lesser
degree than in 1. Migraine, and may differentiate
some cases from 2. Tension-type headache.
Tumours, fractures, infections and rheumatoid
arthritis of the upper cervical spine have not been validated
formally as causes of headache, but are nevertheless
accepted as such when demonstrated to be so
in individual cases. Cervical spondylosis and osteochondritis
may or may not be valid causes fulfilling
criterion B, depending on the individual case. When
cervical myofascial pain is the cause, the headache
should probably be coded under 2. Tension-type headache.
However, awaiting further evidence, an alternative
diagnosis of A11.2.5 Headache attributed to cervical
myofascial pain is included in the Appendix.
Headache caused by upper cervical radiculopathy
has been postulated and, considering the now wellunderstood
convergence between upper cervical and
trigeminal nociception, this is a logical cause of headache.
Pending further evidence, this diagnosis is found
in the Appendix as A11.2.4 Headache attributed to
upper cervical radiculopathy.
11.2.2 Headache attributed to retropharyngeal
tendonitis
Description:
Headache caused by inflammation or calcification in
the retropharyngeal soft tissues, and usually brought
on by stretching or compression of upper cervical prevertebral
muscles.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Retropharyngeal tendonitis has been demonstrated
by imaging evidence of abnormal swelling of prevertebral
soft tissues at upper cervical spine levels
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the retropharyngeal tendonitis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with progression of the retropharyngeal
tendonitis
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the retropharyngeal tendonitis
3. headache is made significantly worse by extension
of the neck, rotation of the head and/or
swallowing
4. there is tenderness over the spinous processes of
the upper three cervical vertebrae
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Body temperature and erythrocyte sedimentation rate
(ESR) are usually elevated in retropharyngeal tendonitis.
Although retroflexion of the neck most consistently
aggravates pain, the same usually occurs also with rotation
of the head and swallowing. Tissues over the transverse
processes of the upper three vertebrae are usually
tender to palpation.
Calcification in prevertebral tissues is best seen on
CT or MRI, but plain films of the neck can also
reveal this. In several cases, amorphous calcific material
has been aspirated from the swollen prevertebral
tissues.
Upper carotid dissection (or another lesion in or
around the carotid artery) should be ruled out before
the diagnosis of 11.2.2 Headache attributed to retropharyngeal
tendonitis is confirmed.
11.2.3 Headache attributed to craniocervical dystonia
Description:
Headache caused by dystonia involving neck muscles,
with abnormal movements or defective posturing of the
neck or head as a result of muscular hyperactivity.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Neck and posterior head pain fulfilling criterion C
B. Craniocervical dystonia is demonstrated by abnormal
movements or defective posturing of the neck
or head as a result of muscular hyperactivity
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of craniocervical dystonia
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2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with progression of the craniocervical dystonia
3. headache has significantly improved or resolved
in parallel with improvement in or resolution of
the craniocervical dystonia
4. headache location corresponds to the location of
the dystonic muscle(s)
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Focal dystonias of the head and neck accompanied by
11.2.3 Headache attributed to craniocervical dystonia are
pharyngeal dystonia, spasmodic torticollis, mandibular
dystonia, lingual dystonia and a combination of the
cranial and cervical dystonias (segmental craniocervical
dystonia).
Pain is presumably caused by local muscle contraction
and secondary changes in sensitization.
11.3 Headache attributed to disorder of the eyes
Description:
Headache caused by a disorder involving one or both
eyes.
11.3.1 Headache attributed to acute glaucoma
Description:
Headache, usually unilateral, caused by acute narrowangle
glaucoma and associated with other symptoms
and clinical signs of this disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Acute narrow-angle glaucoma has been diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of glaucoma
2. headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with progression of glaucoma
3. headache has significantly improved or resolved
in parallel with improvement in or resolution of
glaucoma
4. pain location includes the affected eye
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Acute glaucoma generally causes eye and/or periorbital
pain, visual acuity loss (blurring), nausea and vomiting.
When intraocular pressure rises above 30 mmHg, the
risk of permanent visual loss rises dramatically, which
makes early diagnosis essential.
11.3.2 Headache attributed to refractive error
Description:
Headache caused by ocular refractive error(s), generally
symptomatic after prolonged visual tasks.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Uncorrected or miscorrected refractive error(s) in
one or both eyes
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed and/or significantly
worsened in temporal relation to the onset or
worsening of the refractive error(s)
2. headache has significantly improved after correction
of the refractive error(s)
3. headache is aggravated by prolonged visual
tasks at an angle or distance at which vision is
impaired
4. headache significantly improves when the visual
task is discontinued
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Most patients with 11.3.2 Headache attributed to refractive
error will seek advice from an ophthalmologist.
Although refractive error is much less commonly a
cause of headache than is generally believed, there is
some evidence for it in children, as well as a number
of supportive cases in adults.
11.3.3 Headache attributed to heterophoria or
heterotropia (latent or persistent squint)
Description:
Headache caused by latent or persistent strabismus,
usually occurring after prolonged visual tasks.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Frontal headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Strabismus has been identified, with at least one of
the following symptoms:
1. blurred vision
2. diplopia
3. difficulty switching from near to far focus and/or
vice versa
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C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the strabismus, or led to its
discovery
2. headache has significantly improved after correction
of the strabismus
3. headache is aggravated by sustained visual tasks
4. headache is alleviated by closing one eye and/or
discontinuation of the visual task
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Most patients with 11.3.3 Headache attributed to heterophoria
or heterotropia will seek advice from an
ophthalmologist. There is little evidence for this cause
of headache other than a number of supportive cases.
11.3.4 Headache attributed to ocular inflammatory
disorder
Description:
Headache caused by ocular inflammatory conditions
such as iritis, uveitis, scleritis or conjunctivitis and associated
with other symptoms and clinical signs of the
disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Periorbital headache and eye pain fulfilling
criterion C
B. Clinical, laboratory and/or imaging evidence of
ocular inflammatory disease such as iritis, uveitis,
cyclitis, scleritis, choroiditis, conjunctivitis or corneal
inflammation
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the ocular disorder
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the ocular disorder
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the ocular disorder
3. either or both of the following:
a) headache significantly improves with topical
application of local anaesthetic agent to the
eye
b) headache is aggravated by pressure applied to
the eye
4. in the case of a unilateral eye disorder, headache
is localized ipsilateral to it
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Ocular inflammation takes many forms, and may be
categorized variously by anatomical site (e.g. iritis,
cyclitis, choroiditis), by course (i.e. acute, subacute,
chronic), by presumed cause (e.g. endogenous or
exogenous infectious agents, lens-related, traumatic)
or by type of inflammation (granulomatous, nongranulomatous).
Because of nociceptive field overlap and convergence
(leading to complex pain referral), any ocular source of
pain may lead to headache in any region. Nevertheless,
if the eye disorder is unilateral, headache is likely to be
localized ipsilateral to it.
11.3.5 Headache attributed to trochleitis
Coded elsewhere:
An episode of migraine triggered by trochleitis is coded
as 1. Migraine or one of its subtypes.
Description:
Headache, usually frontal and/or periorbital in location,
with or without eye pain, caused by peritrochlear
inflammation. It is often exacerbated by downward
movements of the eye.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Periorbital and/or frontal headache fulfilling criterion
C
B. Clinical and/or imaging evidence of trochlear
inflammation
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. unilateral ocular pain
2. headache is exacerbated by movement of the eye,
particularly downward in adduction
3. headache is significantly improved by injection
of local anaesthetic or steroid agent into the peritrochlear
region
4. in the case of a unilateral trochleitis, headache is
localized ipsilateral to it
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Trochleitis, defined as inflammation of the trochlea
and/or sheath of the superior oblique muscle, can
lead to eye pain and frontal headache that are aggravated
by movements of the eye involving the superior
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oblique muscle. Although not common, it is not rare,
and must be considered when evaluating unilateral periorbital
head pain.
Trochleitis can also trigger an episode of 1.
Migraine, which is coded accordingly.
11.4 Headache attributed to disorder of the ears
Description:
Headache caused by an inflammatory, neoplastic or
other disorder of one or both ears and associated
with other symptoms and/or clinical signs of the
disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical, laboratory and/or imaging evidence of an
infectious, neoplastic or other irritative disorder or
lesion of one or both ears, known to be able to
cause headache
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the ear disorder or appearance of
the ear lesion
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening or progression of the ear
disorder or lesion
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the ear disorder or lesion
3. headache is exacerbated by pressure applied to
the affected ear(s) or periauricular structures
4. in the case of a unilateral ear disorder or lesion,
headache is localized ipsilateral to it
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Because of nociceptive field overlap and convergence in
the nociceptive pathways of the head and neck, it seems
clear that a painful disorder or lesion of the ear may
lead to headache. It is highly unlikely that headache in
such conditions can occur in the absence of ear pain,
the typical manifestation of otological pathology.
11.5 Headache attributed to disorder of the nose or
paranasal sinuses
Previously used term:
The term 'sinus headache' is outmoded because it has
been applied both to primary headaches and headache
supposedly attributed to various conditions involving
nasal or sinus structures.
Description:
Headache caused by a disorder of the nose and/or paranasal
sinuses and associated with other symptoms and/
or clinical signs of the disorder.
11.5.1 Headache attributed to acute rhinosinusitis
Description:
Headache caused by acute rhinosinusitis and associated
with other symptoms and/or clinical signs of this
disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical, nasal endoscopic and/or imaging evidence
of acute rhinosinusitis
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the rhinosinusitis
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening of the rhinosinusitis
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the rhinosinusitis
3. headache is exacerbated by pressure applied over
the paranasal sinuses
4. in the case of a unilateral rhinosinusitis, headache
is localized ipsilateral to it
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
1. Migraine and 2. Tension-type headache can be mistaken
for 11.5.1 Headache attributed to acute rhinosinusitis
because of similarity in location of the headache
and, in the case of migraine, because of the commonly
accompanying nasal autonomic symptoms. The presence
or absence of purulent nasal discharge and/or
other features diagnostic of acute rhinosinusitis help
to differentiate these conditions. However, an episode
of 1. Migraine may be triggered or exacerbated by nasal
or sinus pathology.
Pain as a result of pathology in the nasal mucosa or
related structures is usually perceived as frontal or
facial, but may be referred more posteriorly. Simply
finding pathological changes on imaging of acute rhinosinusitis,
correlating with the patient's pain description,
is not enough to secure the diagnosis of 11.5.1
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Headache attributed to acute rhinosinusitis. Treatment
response to local anaesthesia is compelling evidence,
but may also not be pathognomonic.
11.5.2 Headache attributed to chronic or recurring
rhinosinusitis
Description:
Headache caused by a chronic infectious or inflammatory
disorder of the paranasal sinuses and associated
with other symptoms and/or clinical signs of the
disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical, nasal endoscopic and/or imaging evidence
of current or past infection or other inflammatory
process within the paranasal sinuses
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of chronic rhinosinusitis
2. headache waxes and wanes in parallel with the
degree of sinus congestion, drainage and other
symptoms of chronic rhinosinusitis
3. headache is exacerbated by pressure applied over
the paranasal sinuses
4. in the case of a unilateral rhinosinusitis, headache
is localized ipsilateral to it
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
It has been controversial whether or not chronic sinus
pathology can produce persistent headache. Recent studies
seem to support such causation.
11.6 Headache attributed to disorder of the teeth or jaw
Description:
Headache caused by a disorder involving the teeth and/
or jaw.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical and/or imaging evidence of a disorder or
lesion of one or more teeth and/or the jaw, known
to be able to cause headache
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to the
onset of the disorder or appearance of the lesion
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with worsening or progression of the disorder
or lesion
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in or
resolution of the disorder or lesion
3. headache is exacerbated by pressure applied to
the lesion
4. in the case of a unilateral disorder or lesion,
headache is localized ipsilateral to it
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Disorders of the teeth usually cause toothache and/or
facial pain, and those causing headache are rare. Pain
from the teeth may be referred, however, and cause
diffuse headache. The most common cause of 11.6
Headache attributed to disorder of the teeth or jaw is
periodontitis or pericoronitis as the result of infection
or traumatic irritation around a partially erupted lower
wisdom tooth.
11.7 Headache attributed to temporomandibular disorder
(TMD)
Description:
Headache caused by a disorder involving structures in
the temporomandibular region.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical and/or imaging evidence of a pathological
process affecting the temporomandibular joint
(TMJ), muscles of mastication and/or or associated
structures
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the temporomandibular disorder
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache has significantly worsened in parallel
with progression of the temporomandibular
disorder
b) headache has significantly improved or
resolved in parallel with improvement in
or resolution of the temporomandibular
disorder
3. the headache is produced or exacerbated by
active jaw movements, passive movements
through the range of motion of the jaw and/
or provocative manoeuvres applied to
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temporomandibular structures such as pressure
on the TMJ and surrounding muscles of
mastication
4. headache, when unilateral, is ipsilateral to the
side of the temporomandibular disorder
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
11.7 Headache attributed to temporomandibular disorder
(TMD) is usually most prominent in the preauricular
areas of the face, masseter muscles and/or temporal
regions. Pain generators include disk displacements,
joint osteoarthritis, joint hypermobility and regional
myofascial pain. 11.7 Headache attributed to temporomandibular
disorder (TMD) tends to be unilateral when
the temporomandibular complex is the generator of
pain, but may be bilateral when muscular involvement
is present. Pain referral to the face is common.
Diagnosis of TMD can be difficult, with some controversy
regarding the relative importance of clinical
and radiographic evidence. The use of diagnostic criteria
evolved by the International RDC/TMD
Consortium Network and Orofacial Pain Special
Interest Group is recommended.
There is some overlap between 11.7 Headache attributed
to temporomandibular disorder (TMD) as a result of
muscular tension and 2. Tension-type headache. When
the diagnosis of TMD is uncertain, the headache should
be coded as 2. Tension-type headache or one of its subtypes
(presumably with pericranial muscle tenderness).
11.8 Headache or facial pain attributed to inflammation of
the stylohyoid ligament
Previously used term:
Eagle's syndrome.
Description:
Unilateral headache, with neck, pharyngeal and/or
facial pain, caused by inflammation of the stylohyoid
ligament and usually provoked or exacerbated by head
turning.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any head, neck, pharyngeal and/or facial pain fulfilling
criterion C
B. Radiological evidence of calcified or elongated stylohyoid
ligament
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. pain is provoked or exacerbated by digital palpation
of the stylohyoid ligament
2. pain is provoked or exacerbated by head
turning
3. pain is significantly improved by local injection
of local anaesthetic agent to the stylohyoid ligament,
or by styloidectomy
4. pain is ipsilateral to the inflamed stylohyoid
ligament
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
11.8 Headache or facial pain attributed to inflammation
of the stylohyoid ligament is generally perceived in the
oropharynx, neck and/or face, but some patients
experience more diffuse headache.
11.9 Headache or facial pain attributed to other
disorder of cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose,
sinuses, teeth, mouth or other facial or cervical
structure
Description:
Headache and/or facial pain caused by a disorder of the
cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or
other facial or cervical structure not described above.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache and/or facial pain fulfilling
criterion C
B. A disorder or lesion of cranium, neck, eyes, ears,
nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or other facial or
cervical structure not described above but
known to be able to cause headache has been
diagnosed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache and/or facial pain has developed in
temporal relation to the onset of the disorder
or appearance of the lesion
2. either or both of the following:
a) headache and/or facial pain has significantly
worsened in parallel with progression of the
disorder or lesion
b) headache and/or facial pain has significantly
improved or resolved in parallel with
improvement in or resolution of the disorder
or lesion
3. headache and/or facial pain is exacerbated by
pressure applied to the lesion
4. headache and/or facial pain is localized in accordance
with the site of the lesion
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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Lance JW and Anthony M. Neck-tongue syndrome on
sudden turning of the head. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat
1980; 43: 97–101.
Leone M, D'Amico D, Grazzi L, et al. Cervicogenic headache: A
critical review of the current diagnostic criteria. Pain 1998; 78:
1–5.
Leone M, D'Amico D, Moschiano F, et al. Possible identification
of cervicogenic headache among patients with migraine: An
analysis of 374 headaches. Headache 1995; 35: 461–464.
Lord S, Barnsley L, Wallis B and Bogduk N. Third occipital
headache: A prevalence study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat
1994; 57: 1187–1190.
Lord SM and Bogduk N. The cervical synovial joints as sources
of post-traumatic headache. J Musculoskel Pain 1996; 4: 81–94.
Poughias L, Kruszewski P and Inan L. Cervicogenic headache: A
clinical review with special emphasis on therapy. Funct Neurol
1997; 12: 305–317.
Sjaastad O, Fredriksen TA, Stolt-Nielsen A, et al. Cervicogenic
headache: The importance of sticking to the criteria. Funct
Neurol 2002; 17: 35–36.
Sjaastad O and Bakketeig LS. Prevalence of cervicogenic headache:
Va˚ ga˚ study of headache epidemiology. Acta Neurol
Scand 2008; 117: 173–180.
11.2.2 Headache attributed to retropharyngeal
tendonitis
Eastwood JD, Hudgins PA and Malone D. Retropharyngeal
effusion in acute calcific prevertebral tendonitis: Diagnosis
with CT and MR imaging. Am J Neuroradiol 1998; 19: 1789–
1792.
Ekbom K, Torhall J, Annell K and Traff J. Magnetic resonance
imaging in retropharyngeal tendonitis. Cephalalgia 1994; 14:
266–269.
Pearce JM. Longus cervicis colli 'myositis' (syn: retropharyngeal
tendonitis). J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1996; 61: 324–329.
Sarkozi J and Fam AG. Acute calcific retropharyngeal tendonitis:
An unusual cause of neck pain. Arthritis Rheum 1984; 27:
708–710.
11.2.3 Headache attributed to craniocervical
dystonia
Csala B and Deuschl G. Craniocervical dystonia. Pragmatic general
concept or nosologic entity? Nervenarzt 1994; 65: 75–94.
Friedman J and Standaert DG. Dystonia and its disorders.
Neurol Clin 2001; 19: 681–705.
Go¨ bel H and Deuschl G. Dauerkontraktionen kranialer oder
zervikaler Muskeln. Mu¨nchener Medizinische Wochenschrift
1997; 139: 456–458.
Go¨ bel H, Heinze A, Heinze-Kuhn K and Austermann K.
Botulinum toxin A in the treatment of headache syndromes
and pericranial pain syndromes. Pain 2001; 91: 195–199.
Markham CH. The dystonias. Curr Opin Neurol Neurosurg 1992;
5: 301–307.
11.3 Headache attributed to disorder of the eyes
Akinci A, Gu¨ ven A, Degerliyurt A, et al. The correlation between
headache and refractive errors. J AAPOS 2008; 12: 290–293.
Daroff RB. Ocular causes of headache. Headache 1998; 38:
661–667.
Daum KM, Good G and Tijerina L. Symptoms in video display
terminal operators and the presence of small refractive errors.
J Am Optom Assoc 1988; 59: 691–697.
Gerling J, Janknecht P and Kommerell G. Orbital pain in optic
neuritis and anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Neuro-
Ophthalmology 1998; 19: 93–99.
Go¨ bel H and Martin TJ. Ocular disorders. In: Olesen J, Tfelt-
Hansen P and Welch KMA. The Headaches. 2nd edition.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 2000: 899–904.
Gordon GE, Chronicle EP and Rolan P. Why do we still not
know whether refractive error causes headaches? Towards a
framework for evidence based practice. Ophthalmic Physiol
Opt 2001;21: 45–50.
Lewis J and Fourman S. Subacute angle-closure glaucoma as a
cause of headache in the presence of a white eye. Headache
1998; 38: 684–686.
McCluskey PJ, Lightman S, Watson PG, et al. Posterior scleritis.
Clinical features, systemic associations, and outcome in a large
series of patients. Ophthalmology 1999; 106: 2380–2386.
Tychsen L, Tse DT, Ossoinig K and Anderson RL. Trochleitis
with superior oblique myositis. Ophthalmology 1984; 91:
1075–1079.
Yangu¨ ela J, Pareja JA, Lopez N and Sanchez del Rio M.
Trochleitis and migraine headache. Neurology 2002; 58:
802–805.
Yangu¨ ela J, Sa´ nchez del Rio M, Bueno A, et al. Primary trochlear
headache. A new cephalgia generated and modulated on
the trochlear region. Neurology 2004; 62: 1134–1140.
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Zaragoza-Casares P, Go´ mez-Ferna´ ndez T, Go´ mez de Lian˜o MA
and Zaragoza-Garcia P. Bilateral idiopathic trochleitis as a
cause of frontal cephalgia. Headache 2009; 49: 476–477.
11.5 Headache attributed to disorder of the nose
or paranasal sinuses
Aaseth K, Grande RB, Benth JSˇ , et al. 3-year follow-up of secondary
chronic headaches: The Akershus study of chronic
headache. Eur J Pain 2011; 15: 186–192.
Aaseth K, Grande RB, Kvaerner K, et al. Chronic rhinosinusitis
gives a ninefold increased risk of chronic headache. The
Akershus study of chronic headache. Cephalalgia 2010; 30:
152–160.
Abu-Bakra M and Jones NS. Prevalence of nasal mucosal contact
points in patients with facial pain compared with patients
without facial pain. J Laryngol Otol 2001; 115: 629–632.
Blumenthal HJ. Headache and sinus disease. Headache 2001; 41:
883–888.
Boes CJ, Swanson JW and Dodick DW. Chronic paroxysmal
hemicrania presenting as otalgia with a sensation of external
acoustic meatus obstruction: Two cases and a pathophysiologic
hypothesis. Headache 1998; 38: 787–791.
Cady RK, Dodick DW, Levine HL, et al. Sinus headache:
A neurology, otolaryngology, allergy and primary care
consensus on diagnosis and treatment. Mayo Clin Proc 2005;
80: 908–916.
Close LG and Aviv J. Headaches and disease of the nose and
paranasal sinuses. Semin Neurol 1997; 17: 351–354.
De Vuyst D, De Schepper AM and Parizel PM. Chronic cocaine
abuse. JBR-BTR 2001; 84: 60.
Go¨ bel H and Baloh RW. Disorders of ear, nose, and sinus. In:
Olesen J, Tfelt-Hansen P and Welch KMA. The Headaches.
2nd edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 2000:
905–912.
Kenny TJ, Duncavage J, Bracikowski J, et al. Prospective analysis
of sinus symptoms and correlation with paranasal computed
tomography scan. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2001;
125: 40–43.
Lam DK, Lawrence HP and Tenenbaum HC. Aural symptoms in
temporomandibular disorder patients attending a craniofacial
pain unit. J Orofac Pain 2001; 15: 146–157.
Lanza DC and Kennedy DW. Adult rhinosinusitis
defined. Report of the Rhinosinusitis Task Force
Committee of the American Academy of Otolaryngology
Head and Neck Surgery. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1997;
117: S1-S7.
Levine HL. Patients with headache and visual disturbance: a
differentiation between migraine and sinus headache. Arch
Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2000: 126: 234–235.
Murphy E and Merrill RL. Non-odontogenic toothache. J Ir
Dent Assoc 2001; 47: 46–58.
Pinto A, De Rossi SS, McQuone S and Sollecito TP. Nasal mucosal
headache presenting as orofacial pain: A review of the literature
and a case report. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral
Radiol Endod 2001; 92: 180–183.
Sandstrom M, Wilen J, Oftedal G and Hansson Mild K. Mobile
phone use and subjective symptoms. Comparison of symptoms
experienced by users of analogue and digital mobile phones.
Occup Med (Lond) 2001; 51: 25–35.
Seiden AM and Martin VT. Headache and the frontal sinus.
Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2001; 34: 227–241.
Sydbom A, Blomberg A, Parnia S, et al. Health effects of diesel
exhaust emissions. Eur Respir J 2001; 17: 733–746.
Tosun F, Gerek M and Ozkaptan Y. Nasal surgery for contact
point headaches. Headache 2000; 40: 237–240.
West B and Jones NS. Endoscopy-negative, computed tomography-
negative facial pain in a nasal clinic. Laryngoscope 2001;
111 (4 Pt 1): 581–586.
11.6 Headache attributed to disorder of the teeth
or jaw
Allen DT, Voytovich MC and Allen JC. Painful chewing and
blindness: Signs and symptoms of temporal arteritis. J Am
Dent Assoc 2000; 131: 1738–1741.
Ciancaglini R and Radaelli G. The relationship between headache
and symptoms of temporomandibular disorder in the
general population. J Dent 2001; 29: 93–98.
Egermark I, Carlsson GE and Magnusson T. A 20-year longitudinal
study of subjective symptoms of temporomandibular
disorders from childhood to adulthood. Acta Odontol Scand
2001; 59: 40–48.
Epstein JB, Caldwell J and Black G. The utility of panoramic
imaging of the temporomandibular joint in patients with temporomandibular
disorders. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol
Oral Radiol Endod 2001; 92: 236–239.
Henrikson T, Ekberg EC and Nilner M. Symptoms and signs of
temporomandibular disorders in girls with normal occlusion
and Class II malocclusion. Acta Odontol Scand 1997; 55:
229–235.
Ivanhoe CB, Lai JM and Francisco GE. Bruxism after brain
injury: successful treatment with botulinum toxin-A. Arch
Phys Med Rehabil 1997; 78: 1272–1273.
Kirveskari P. Prediction of demand for treatment of temporomandibular
disorders. J Oral Rehabil 2001; 28: 572–575.
Magnusson T, Egermark I and Carlsson GE. A longitudinal
epidemiologic study of signs and symptoms of temporomandibular
disorders from 15 to 35 years of age. J Orofac Pain
2000; 14: 310–319.
Marcusson A, List T, Paulin G and Dworkin S.
Temporomandibular disorders in adults with repaired cleft
lip and palate: A comparison with controls. EOS 2001; 23:
193–204.
Sonnesen L, Bakke M and Solow B. Malocclusion traits and
symptoms and signs of temporomandibular disorders in children
with severe malocclusion. Eur J Orthod 1998; 20: 543–559.
11.7 Headache attributed to temporomandibular
disorder (TMD)
Ciancaglini R and Radaelli G. The relationship between headache
and symptoms of temporomandibular disorder in the
general population. J Dent 2001; 29: 93–98.
Dworkin SF. Research diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular
disorders: Current status & future relevance. J Oral Rehabil
2010; 37: 734–743.
Jacome D. Primary yawning headache. Cephalalgia 2001; 21:
697–699.
List T, Wahlund K and Larsson B. Psychosocial functioning and
dental factors in adolescents with temporomandibular disorders:
A case-control study. J Orofac Pain 2001; 15: 218–227.
Molina OF, dos Santos Junior J, Nelson SJ and Nowlin T.
Profile of TMD and bruxer compared to TMD and nonbruxer
patients regarding chief complaint, previous consultations,
modes of therapy, and chronicity. Cranio 2000; 18: 205–219.
Ogus H. Degenerative disease of the temporomandibular joint
and pain-dysfunction syndrome. J Roy Soc Med 1978; 71:
748–754.
Schiffman E, Ohrbach R, Truelove E, et al. Diagnostic criteria
for temporomandibular disorders (DC/TMD) for clinical and
research applications: Recommendations of the International
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768 Cephalalgia 33(9)
RDC/TMD Consortium Network and Orofacial Pain Special
Interest Group. J Orofacial Pain 2013 (in press).
Schiffman ES, Ohrbach R, List T, et al. Diagnostic criteria for
headache attributed to temporomandibular disorders (TMD).
Cephalalgia 2012; 32: 683–692.
11.8 Head or facial pain attributed to inflammation
of the stylohyoid ligament
Colby CC and Del Gaudio JM. Stylohyoid complex syndrome: A
new diagnostic classification. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck
Surg 2011; 137: 248–252.
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ICHD-3 beta 769
12. Headache attributed to psychiatric
disorder
12.1 Headache attributed to somatization disorder
12.2 Headache attributed to psychotic disorder
Coded elsewhere:
Headache attributed to a substance use disorder (e.g.
dependence), headache attributed to substance withdrawal,
headache attributed to acute intoxication and
headache attributed to medication overuse are all
coded under 8. Headache attributed to a substance or
its withdrawal.
General comment
Primary or secondary headache or both?
Headaches are common, and so are psychiatric disorders.
Therefore, frequent coexistence by chance alone is
expected.
When a headache occurs for the first time in close
temporal relation to a psychiatric disorder, however, a
causal relationship may be present. If causation is confirmed,
the headache must be coded as a secondary
headache attributed to that disorder. This remains
true when the new headache has the characteristics of
any of the primary headache disorders classified in Part
one of ICHD-3 beta. When a pre-existing headache
with the characteristics of a primary headache disorder
becomes chronic, or is made significantly worse (usually
meaning a two-fold or greater increase in frequency
and/or severity), in close temporal relation to a psychiatric
disorder, both the initial headache diagnosis and a
diagnosis of 12. Headache attributed to psychiatric disorder
(or one of its subtypes) should be given, provided
that there is good evidence that that disorder can cause
headache. When a causal relationship cannot be confirmed,
the pre-existing primary headache and the psychiatric
disorder are diagnosed separately.
Chronic headache attributed to and persisting after
resolution of a psychiatric disorder has not yet been
described.
Introduction
Evidence supporting psychiatric causes of headache
remains scarce. Thus, the diagnostic categories in this
section of the classification are limited to those few
cases in which a headache occurs in the context and
as a direct consequence of a psychiatric condition
known to be symptomatically manifested by headache.
Diagnostic criteria must be restrictive enough not to
include false positive cases, but must set the threshold
low enough to admit the majority of affected patients.
In the vast majority of cases of 12. Headache attributed
to psychiatric disorder, the diagnosis is based on personal
evaluation of case histories and physical examinations
rather than objective diagnostic biomarkers.
Headache disorders may, of course, occur in association
with psychiatric disorders without any causal connection.
Headache disorders occur coincidentally with
a number of psychiatric disorders, including depressive
disorders (major depressive disorders, single episode or
recurrent; persistent depressive disorder), anxiety disorders
(separation anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social
anxiety disorder and generalized anxiety disorder) and
trauma- and stress-related disorders (reactive attachment
disorder, acute stress disorder, post-traumatic
stress disorder, adjustment disorders). In such cases,
when there is no evidence of a causal relationship,
both a primary headache diagnosis and a separate psychiatric
diagnosis should be made.
Epidemiological data nonetheless show that headache
and psychiatric disorders occur together at frequencies
higher than would be expected by chance.
Confounding factors may in part explain these apparent
comorbidities. For example, patients who have one
diagnosis are more likely to be diagnosed with other
conditions simply because they receive more medical
scrutiny. Genuine comorbidities also are possible,
such as between migraine and depression, indicating
the likelihood of an underlying association. Putative
casual associations include the headache causing the
psychiatric condition, the psychiatric condition causing
the headache, reciprocal influence between the headache
and the psychiatric condition and a common
underlying factor causing both.
Although it is suggested that headache occurring
exclusively in association with some common psychiatric
disorders such as depressive disorders, anxiety disorders
and trauma/stress-related disorders might be
considered as attributed to these disorders, because of
uncertainties concerning the causal relationships and
relative lack of evidence in this context, criteria for
headaches attributed to these psychiatric disorders
have been included only in the Appendix. Further clarification
of the mechanisms underlying these causal
associations is necessary for sturdy conclusions.
Evidence suggests that the presence of a comorbid
psychiatric disorder tends to worsen the course of 1.
Migraine and/or 2. Tension-type headache by increasing
the frequency and severity of the headache and/or
making it less responsive to treatment. Thus, identification
and treatment of any comorbid psychiatric condition
is important for the proper management of these
headaches. In children and adolescents, primary headache
disorders (migraine, episodic tension-type headache
and especially chronic tension-type headache)
are often comorbid with psychiatric disorder.
International Headache Society 2013
770 Cephalalgia 33(9)
Sleep disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, social
anxiety disorder (school phobia) attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct disorder,
learning disorder, enuresis, encopresis and tic disorder
should be carefully looked for and treated when found,
considering their negative burden in disability and
prognosis of paediatric headache.
To ascertain whether a headache should be attributed
to a psychiatric disorder, it is necessary to determine
whether or not there is a concomitant psychiatric
disorder. It is recommended to inquire about commonly
comorbid psychiatric symptoms such as depressive
and anxiety disorders in all headache patients.
When a psychiatric disorder is suspected to be a possible
cause of the headache condition, then an evaluation
by an experienced psychiatrist or psychologist is
recommended.
12.1 Headache attributed to somatization disorder
Description:
Headache occurring as part of the symptomatic presentation
of a somatization disorder.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A diagnosis has been made of somatization disorder
characterized by both of the following:
1. a history of multiple physical symptoms beginning
before age 30 years, which either have not
been fully explained by a known medical condition
or, when there is a related medical condition,
are in excess of what would be expected
from the history, physical examination, or
laboratory findings
2. during the course of the disorder, all of the
following:
a) at least four pain symptoms from or during
four different sites or functions (e.g. from
head, chest, back, abdomen, joints, extremities
and/or rectum, and/or during menstruation,
sexual intercourse and/or urination)
b) at least two gastrointestinal symptoms other
than pain (e.g. nausea, bloating, vomiting
other than during pregnancy, diarrhoea and/
or intolerance of several different foods)
c) at least one sexual symptom other than pain
(e.g. sexual indifference, erectile or ejaculatory
dysfunction, irregular menses, excessive menstrual
bleeding and/or vomiting throughout
pregnancy)
d) at least one pseudoneurological symptom not
limited to pain (e.g. conversion symptoms
such as impaired coordination or balance,
paralysis or localized weakness, difficulty
swallowing or lump in the throat, aphonia,
urinary retention, hallucinations, loss of
touch or pain sensation, double vision, blindness,
deafness, seizures, dissociation symptoms
such as amnesia and/or loss of
consciousness other than fainting)
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least one
of the following:
1. headache has evolved or significantly worsened
in intensity in parallel with the development of
other somatic symptoms attributed to somatization
disorder
2. constant or remitting headache parallels in time
the fluctuation of other somatic symptoms
attributed to somatization disorder
3. headache has remitted in parallel with remission
of the other somatic symptoms attributed to
somatization disordero
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Somatization disorder is characterized by a combination
of multiple distressing symptoms and an excessive
or maladaptive response to these symptoms or associated
health concerns. Symptoms include gastric and/
or other intestinal problems or dysfunctions, back pain,
pain in the arms, legs or joints, headaches, chest pain
and/or dyspnoea, dizziness, feeling tired and/or having
low energy, and sleep troubles. The patient's suffering is
authentic, whether or not it is medically explained.
Patients typically experience distress and a high level
of functional impairment. The symptoms may or may
not accompany diagnosed general medical disorders or
psychiatric disorders. There may be a high level of medical
care utilization, which rarely alleviates the patient's
concerns. From the clinician's point of view, many of
these patients seem unresponsive to therapies, and new
interventions or therapies may only exacerbate the presenting
symptoms or lead to new side effects and complications.
Some patients feel that their medical
assessment and treatment have been inadequate.
It should be noted that somatization disorder per se
is not included in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), the
latest revision of the American Psychiatric
Association's diagnostic manual, scheduled for release
in May 2013; it has been replaced by the category
Somatic Symptom Disorder, characterized by one or
more somatic symptoms associated with disproportionate
and persistent thoughts about the seriousness of
one's symptoms, persistently high level of anxiety
about health or symptoms or excessive time and
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ICHD-3 beta 771
energy devoted to these symptoms or health concerns.
Given the enormous heterogeneity of this category (i.e.
it includes both individuals with headaches who have
disproportionate concerns about the seriousness of the
headache as well as classic cases of somatization disorder
with a lifelong pattern of multiple somatic symptoms
including headache), it was decided that it would
be possible to assert attribution only when headache
was part of a larger pattern of multiple somatic complaints.
Thus, ICHD-3 beta continues to refer to the
DSM-IV definition of somatization disorder.
12.2 Headache attributed to psychotic disorder
Description:
Headache as a manifestation of a delusion whose content
involves a mechanism that the patient believes
explains the headache (e.g. headache is the result of a
device implanted in the head by aliens).
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Presence of a delusion whose content involves a
mechanism that would explain the headache (e.g.
the patient believes that a device has been implanted
into his or her head, which is causing a headache, or
that he or she has a brain tumour causing headache
despite irrefutable proof to the contrary)
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed with or after the onset
of the delusion
2. headache has remitted after remission of the
delusion
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Delusions are false fixed beliefs, based on incorrect
inferences about reality, that are firmly held despite
obvious proof to the contrary. They may involve a
false belief that a serious medical condition (e.g. brain
tumour or aneurysm) is present and causes the headache,
despite repeated proofs and appropriate authoritative
reassurances that no such medical condition is
present. The content of the delusion may be more
bizarre, such as the idea of a transmitter being surgically
implanted into one's head and causing the
headache.
When the patient first develops a headache (e.g. one
of the primary headache disorders classified in Part one
of ICHD-3 beta) and then develops a delusional
explanation for the headache, such as its being a
result of a brain tumour despite no medical evidence
in support of that belief, the headache may not be
attributed to the psychiatric disorder; instead, the headache
should be coded as a primary headache disorder
and the patient given the additional psychiatric diagnosis
of delusional disorder, somatic type.
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International Headache Society 2013
772 Cephalalgia 33(9)
Part three
Painful cranial neuropathies, other facial pains and other headaches
13. Painful cranial neuropathies and other facial pains
14. Other headache disorders
ICHD-3 beta 773
13. Painful cranial neuropathies and other
facial pains
13.1 Trigeminal neuralgia
13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia
13.1.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia,
purely paroxysmal
13.1.1.2 Classical trigeminal neuralgia
with concomitant persistent
facial pain
13.1.2 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
13.1.2.1 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
attributed to acute Herpes zoster
13.1.2.2 Post-herpetic trigeminal
neuropathy
13.1.2.3 Painful post-traumatic trigeminal
neuropathy
13.1.2.4 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
attributed to multiple sclerosis
(MS) plaque
13.1.2.5 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
attributed to space-occupying
lesion
13.1.2.6 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
attributed to other disorder
13.2 Glossopharyngeal neuralgia
13.3 Nervus intermedius (facial nerve) neuralgia
13.3.1 Classical nervus intermedius neuralgia
13.3.2 Nervus intermedius neuropathy attributed
to Herpes zoster
13.4 Occipital neuralgia
13.5 Optic neuritis
13.6 Headache attributed to ischaemic ocular motor
nerve palsy
13.7 Tolosa-Hunt syndrome
13.8 Paratrigeminal oculosympathetic (Raeder's)
syndrome
13.9 Recurrent painful ophthalmoplegic neuropathy
13.10 Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)
13.11 Persistent idiopathic facial pain (PIFP)
13.12 Central neuropathic pain
13.12.1 Central neuropathic pain attributed to
multiple sclerosis (MS)
13.12.2 Central post-stroke pain (CPSP)
Introduction
Pain in the head and neck is mediated by afferent fibres
in the trigeminal nerve, nervus intermedius, glossopharyngeal
and vagus nerves and the upper cervical roots
via the occipital nerves. Stimulation of these nerves by
compression, distortion, exposure to cold or other
forms of irritation or by a lesion in central pathways
may give rise to stabbing or constant pain felt in the
area innervated.
The cause may be clear, such as infection by Herpes
zoster or a structural abnormality demonstrated by
imaging, but in some cases there may be no cause
apparent for neuralgic pain.
Trigeminal and glossopharyngeal neuralgias present
a problem of terminology. When pain is found to result
from compression of the nerve by a vascular loop at
operation, the neuralgia should strictly be regarded as
secondary. As many patients do not come to operation,
it remains uncertain as to whether they have primary or
secondary neuralgias. For this reason the term classical
rather than primary has been applied to those patients
with a typical history even though a vascular source of
compression may be discovered during its course. The
term secondary can then be reserved for those patients
in whom a neuroma or similar lesion is demonstrated.
Definitions of terms used in this chapter1:
Pain: An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience
associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or
described in terms of such damage.
Neuropathic pain: Pain (qv) caused by a lesion or
disease of the somatosensory nervous system.
Central neuropathic pain: Pain (qv) caused by a
lesion or disease of the central somatosensory nervous
system.
Peripheral neuropathic pain: Pain (qv) caused by a
lesion or disease of the peripheral somatosensory nervous
system.
Neuropathy: A disturbance of function or pathological
change in a nerve or nerves (in one nerve: mononeuropathy;
in several nerves: mononeuropathy multiplex;
when diffuse and bilateral: polyneuropathy). The term
neuropathy is not intended to cover neurapraxia, neurotmesis,
section of a nerve, disturbances of a nerve as a
result of transient impact such as a blow, stretching or
epileptic discharge (the term neurogenic applies to pain
attributed to such temporary perturbations).
Neuralgia: Pain in the distribution of a nerve or
nerves. (Common usage, especially in Europe, often
implies a paroxysmal quality, but the term neuralgia
should not be reserved for paroxysmal pains.)
Note:
1. International Association for the Study of Pain:
Taxonomy. URL: http://ift.tt/1hlCgMT.
13.1 Trigeminal neuralgia
Description:
A disorder characterized by recurrent unilateral brief
electric shock-like pains, abrupt in onset and termination,
limited to the distribution of one or more divisions
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of the trigeminal nerve and triggered by innocuous stimuli.
It may develop without apparent cause or be a
result of another diagnosed disorder. There may or may
not be, additionally, persistent background facial pain
of moderate intensity.
13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia
Previously used term:
Tic douloureux.
Description:
Trigeminal neuralgia developing without apparent
cause other than neurovascular compression.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least three attacks of unilateral facial pain fulfilling
criteria B and C
B. Occurring in one or more divisions of the trigeminal
nerve, with no radiation beyond the trigeminal
distribution
C. Pain has at least three of the following four
characteristics:
1. recurring in paroxysmal attacks lasting from a
fraction of a second to 2 minutes
2. severe intensity
3. electric shock-like, shooting, stabbing or sharp
in quality
4. precipitated by innocuous stimuli to the affected
side of the face1
D. No clinically evident neurological deficit2
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Notes:
1. Some attacks may be, or appear to be, spontaneous,
but there must be at least three that are
precipitated in this way to meet this criterion.
2. Hypoaesthesia or hypoalgesia in the affected trigeminal
region always indicates axonal damage.
When either is present, there is trigeminal neuropathy
and extensive diagnostic work-up is necessary
to exclude symptomatic cases. There are some
patients with hyperalgesia in the painful region,
which should not necessarily lead to a diagnosis
of trigeminal neuropathy because it may reflect
the patient's increased attention to the painful side.
Comments:
The term classical (rather than primary) trigeminal
neuralgia is used because, according to current
evidence, 13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia is
caused by neurovascular compression, most frequently
by the superior cerebellar artery. Imaging (preferably
MRI) should be done to exclude secondary causes and,
in the majority of patients, to demonstrate neurovascular
compression of the trigeminal nerve.
Many patients with 13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia
have a memorable onset of pain.
13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia usually appears
in the second or third divisions. The pain never crosses
to the opposite side but it may rarely occur bilaterally.
Following a painful paroxysm there is usually a refractory
period during which pain cannot be triggered.
When very severe, the pain often evokes contraction
of the muscle of the face on the affected side (tic douloureux).
Mild autonomic symptoms such as lacrimation
and/or redness of the eye may be present.
The duration of pain attacks can change over time
and become more prolonged as well as severe. They can
result in psychosocial dysfunction, significantly impairing
quality of life and often leading to weight loss.
Between paroxysms. most patients are asymptomatic.
In the subform 13.1.1.2 Classical trigeminal neuralgia
with concomitant persistent facial pain, there is
prolonged background pain in the affected area.
13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia may be preceded
by a period of atypical continuous pain termed pretrigeminal
neuralgia in the literature.
13.1.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia, purely paroxysmal
Description:
Trigeminal neuralgia without persistent background
facial pain.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent attacks of unilateral facial pain fulfilling
criteria for 13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia
B. No persistent facial pain between attacks
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
13.1.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia, purely paroxysmal
is usually responsive, at least initially, to pharmacotherapy
(especially carbamazepine or oxcarbazepine).
13.1.1.2 Classical trigeminal neuralgia with concomitant
persistent facial pain
Previously used terms:
Atypical trigeminal neuralgia; trigeminal neuralgia
type 2.
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Description:
Trigeminal neuralgia with persistent background facial
pain.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent attacks of unilateral facial pain fulfilling
criteria for 13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia
B. Persistent facial pain of moderate intensity in the
affected area
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
13.1.1.2 Classical trigeminal neuralgia with concomitant
persistent facial pain has been referred to as atypical
trigeminal neuralgia or, recently, as trigeminal neuralgia
type 2.
Central sensitization may account for the persistent
facial pain. Neurovascular compression on MRI is less
likely to be demonstrated. 13.1.1.2 Classical trigeminal
neuralgia with concomitant persistent facial pain
responds poorly to conservative treatment and to neurosurgical
interventions. It is less likely to be triggered
by innocuous stimuli.
13.1.2 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
Description:
Head and/or facial pain in the distribution of one or
more branches of the trigeminal nerve caused by
another disorder and indicative of neural damage.
The pain is highly variable in quality and intensity
according to the cause.
13.1.2.1 Painful trigeminal neuropathy attributed to
acute Herpes zoster
Description:
Unilateral head and/or facial pain of less than 3
months' duration in the distribution of one or more
branches of the trigeminal nerve, caused by and associated
with other symptoms and/or clinical signs of
acute Herpes zoster.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral head and/or facial pain lasting <3
months and fulfilling criterion C
B. Either or both of the following:
1. herpetic eruption has occurred in the territory of
a trigeminal nerve branch or branches
2. varicella zoster virus DNA has been detected in
the CSF by polymerase chain reaction
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. pain preceded the herpetic eruption by
<7 days
2. pain is located in the distribution of the same
trigeminal nerve branch or branches
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Herpes zoster affects the trigeminal ganglion in 10–15%
of cases, with the ophthalmic division being singled out
in some 80% of patients. Rarely, pain is not followed
by an eruption or rash (zoster sine herpete). The diagnosis
in such cases is confirmed by polymerase chain
reaction detection of varicella zoster virus DNA in the
cerebrospinal fluid.
13.1.2.1 Painful trigeminal neuropathy attributed to
acute Herpes zoster is usually burning, stabbing/shooting,
tingling or aching, and accompanied by cutaneous
allodynia.
Ophthalmic herpes may be associated with IIIrd,
IVth and VIth cranial nerve palsies. Herpes zoster is
common in immunocompromised patients, occurring
in about 10% of those with lymphoma and 25% of
patients with Hodgkin's disease.
13.1.2.2 Post-herpetic trigeminal neuropathy
Previously used term:
Post-herpetic trigeminal neuralgia.
Description:
Unilateral head and/or facial pain persisting or
recurring for at least 3 months in the distribution
of one or more branches of the trigeminal nerve,
with variable sensory changes, caused by Herpes
zoster.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral head and/or facial pain persisting or
recurring for 3 months and fulfilling
criterion C
B. History of acute Herpes zoster affecting a trigeminal
nerve branch or branches
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. pain developed in temporal relation to the acute
Herpes zoster
2. pain is located in the distribution of the same
trigeminal nerve branch or branches
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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Comments:
Following acute Herpes zoster, post-herpetic neuralgia
is more prevalent in the elderly.
The first division of the trigeminal nerve is most
commonly affected in 13.1.2.2 Post-herpetic trigeminal
neuropathy, but the second and third divisions can be
involved also. Typically the pain is burning and itching.
Itching of affected areas may be very prominent and
extremely bothersome. Sensory abnormalities and allodynia
are usually present in the territory involved. Pale
or light purple scars may be present as sequelae of the
herpetic eruption.
13.1.2.3 Painful post-traumatic trigeminal neuropathy
Previously used term:
Anaesthesia dolorosa.
Coded elsewhere:
Here are described painful post-traumatic neuropathies;
most trigeminal nerve injuries do not result in pain and
therefore have no place in ICHD-3 beta.
Description:
Unilateral facial or oral pain following trauma to the
trigeminal nerve, with other symptoms and/or clinical
signs of trigeminal nerve dysfunction.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral facial and/or oral pain fulfilling
criterion C
B. History of an identifiable traumatic event1 to the trigeminal
nerve, with clinically evident positive (hyperalgesia,
allodynia) and/or negative (hypoaesthesia,
hypoalgesia) signs of trigeminal nerve dysfunction
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. pain is located in the distribution of the same
trigeminal nerve
2. pain has developed within 3–6 months of the
traumatic event
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. The traumatic event may be mechanical, chemical,
thermal or caused by radiation.
Comment:
Pain duration ranges widely from paroxysmal to constant,
and may be mixed. Specifically following
radiation-induced postganglionic injury, neuropathy
may appear after more than 3 months.
13.1.2.4 Painful trigeminal neuropathy attributed to
multiple sclerosis (MS) plaque
Description:
Unilateral head and/or facial pain in the distribution of
a trigeminal nerve and with the characteristics of classical
trigeminal neuralgia, induced by a multiple sclerosis
plaque affecting the trigeminal nerve root and
associated with other symptoms and/or clinical signs
of multiple sclerosis.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Head and/or facial pain with the characteristics of
13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia with or without
concomitant persistent facial pain, but not necessarily
unilateral
B. Multiple sclerosis (MS) has been diagnosed
C. An MS plaque affecting the trigeminal nerve root
has been demonstrated by MRI or by routine electrophysiological
studies (blink reflex or trigeminal
evoked potentials) indicating impairment of the
affected trigeminal nerve(s)
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Current studies indicate that about 7% of MS
patients have a syndrome that is similar to 13.1.1
Classical trigeminal neuralgia. However, symptoms of
trigeminal neuralgia are very rarely a presenting feature
of MS.
Symptoms of 13.1.2.4 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
attributed to multiple sclerosis (MS) plaque are more
likely to be bilateral than those of 13.1.1 Classical trigeminal
neuralgia.
Patients with 13.1.2.4 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
attributed to multiple sclerosis (MS) plaque
benefit less from pharmacological interventions
than those with 13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia.
13.1.2.5 Painful trigeminal neuropathy attributed to
space-occupying lesion
Description:
Unilateral head and/or facial pain in the distribution of
a trigeminal nerve and with the characteristics of classical
trigeminal neuralgia, induced by contact between
the affected trigeminal nerve and a space-occupying
lesion.
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Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral head and/or facial pain with the characteristics
of 13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia with
or without concomitant persistent facial pain and
fulfilling criterion C
B. A space-occupying lesion, and contact between the
lesion and the affected trigeminal nerve, have been
demonstrated by imaging
C. Pain has developed after contact occurred between
the lesion and the trigeminal nerve, or led to its
discovery
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Patients with 13.1.2.5 Painful trigeminal neuropathy
attributed to space-occupying lesion have clinically
detectable sensory signs or electrophysiological
abnormalities.
13.1.2.6 Painful trigeminal neuropathy attributed to
other disorder
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Head and/or facial pain with the characteristics of
13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia with or without
concomitant persistent facial pain, but not necessarily
unilateral
B. A disorder, other than those described above but
known to be capable of causing painful trigeminal
neuropathy, has been diagnosed
C. Pain has developed after onset of the disorder, or
led to its discovery
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
13.2 Glossopharyngeal neuralgia
Previously used term:
Vagoglossopharyngeal neuralgia.
Description:
A severe, transient, stabbing, unilateral pain experienced
in the ear, base of the tongue, tonsillar fossa and/or
beneath the angle of the jaw. It is commonly provoked
by swallowing, talking and/or coughing, and may remit
and relapse in the fashion of classical trigeminal neuralgia.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least three attacks of unilateral pain fulfilling
criteria B and C
B. Pain is located in the posterior part of the tongue,
tonsillar fossa, pharynx, beneath the angle of the
lower jaw and/or in the ear
C. Pain has at least three of the following four
characteristics:
1. recurring in paroxysmal attacks lasting from a
few seconds to 2 minutes
2. severe intensity
3. shooting, stabbing or sharp in quality
4. precipitated by swallowing, coughing, talking or
yawning
D. No clinically evident neurological deficit
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
13.2 Glossopharyngeal neuralgia is felt in the distributions
of the auricular and pharyngeal branches of the
vagus nerve as well as branches of the glossopharyngeal
nerve. Prior to its development, unpleasant sensations
can be experienced in affected areas for weeks to several
months.
13.2 Glossopharyngeal neuralgia is less severe than
13.1.1 Classical trigeminal neuralgia but can be bad
enough for patients to lose weight. These two disorders
can occur together.
In rare cases, attacks of pain are associated with
vagal symptoms such as cough, hoarseness, syncope
and/or bradycardia. Some authors have proposed
distinguishing between pharyngeal, otalgic and
vagal subtypes of neuralgia, and suggested using
the term vagoglossopharyngeal neuralgia when pain
is accompanied by asystole, convulsions and
syncope.
Imaging may show neurovascular compression of
the glossopharyngeal nerve. There are single reports
of secondary glossopharyngeal neuropathy caused by
neck trauma, multiple sclerosis, tonsillar or regional
tumours, cerebello-pontine angle tumours and
Arnold-Chiari malformation.
13.2 Glossopharyngeal neuralgia is usually responsive,
at least initially, to pharmacotherapy, especially
antiepileptics. It has been suggested that application
of local anaesthetic to the tonsil and pharyngeal wall
can prevent attacks for a few hours.
13.3 Nervus intermedius (facial nerve) neuralgia
Description:
A rare disorder characterized by brief paroxysms of
pain felt deeply in the auditory canal, sometimes radiating
to the parieto-occipital region. It may develop without
apparent cause or as a complication of Herpes
zoster.
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13.3.1 Classical nervus intermedius neuralgia
Description:
Nervus intermedius neuralgia developing without
apparent cause.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least three attacks of unilateral pain fulfilling
criteria B and C
B. Pain is located in the auditory canal, sometimes
radiating to the parieto-occipital region
C. Pain has at least three of the following four
characteristics:
1. recurring in paroxysmal attacks lasting from a
few seconds to minutes
2. severe intensity
3. shooting, stabbing or sharp in quality
4. precipitated by stimulation of a trigger area in
the posterior wall of the auditory canal and/or
periauricular region
D. No clinically evident neurological deficit
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Disorders of lacrimation, salivation and/or taste sometimes
accompany the pain of 13.3.1 Classical nervus
intermedius neuralgia. In view of the complex and overlapping
innervation of the external ear, deriving from
the trigeminal (auriculotemporal nerve), facial (nervus
intermedius), glossopharyngeal, vagus and second cranial
nerves, attribution of neuralgias to a single nerve
may not be easy in this body region if a specific neurovascular
contact cannot be visualized.
The pain of 13.3.1 Classical nervus intermedius neuralgia
can result in psychological effects and significantly
impair quality of life.
13.3.2 Secondary nervus intermedius neuropathy attributed
to acute Herpes zoster
Previously used term:
Ramsay Hunt syndrome.
Description:
Unilateral pain felt deeply in the auditory canal, sometimes
radiating to the parieto-occipital region, associated
with facial paresis and caused by Herpes zoster
of the nervus intermedius.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral facial pain fulfilling criterion C
B. Herpetic eruption has occurred in the ear and/or
oral mucosa, in the territory of the nervus
intermedius
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. pain has preceded the herpetic eruption by <7
days
2. pain is localized to the distribution of the nervus
intermedius
D. Clinical features of peripheral facial paresis
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The most frequent cause of secondary nervus intermedius
neuropathy is Herpes zoster. A very few cases are
described resulting from other disorders such as neurovascular
compression, and there are rare familial cases
associated with occipital neuralgia.
In Ramsay Hunt syndrome, zoster lesions in the ear
or oral mucosa accompanied by facial paresis are
pathognomonic, but the original description pointed
to additional symptoms such as vertigo, tinnitus, acoustic
disturbances and nausea.
13.3.2 Secondary nervus intermedius neuropathy
attributed to Herpes zoster should be treated with cortisone
and acyclovir as early as possible.
13.4 Occipital neuralgia
Description:
Unilateral or bilateral paroxysmal, shooting or stabbing
pain in the posterior part of the scalp, in the
distribution of the greater, lesser or third occipital
nerves, sometimes accompanied by diminished sensation
or dysaesthesia in the affected area and commonly
associated with tenderness over the involved
nerve(s).
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral or bilateral pain fulfilling criteria B-E
B. Pain is located in the distribution of the greater,
lesser and/or third occipital nerves
C. Pain has two of the following three characteristics:
1. recurring in paroxysmal attacks lasting from a
few seconds to minutes
2. severe intensity
3. shooting, stabbing or sharp in quality
D. Pain is associated with both of the following:
1. dysaesthesia and/or allodynia apparent during
innocuous stimulation of the scalp and/or hair
2. either or both of the following:
a) tenderness over the affected nerve branches
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b) trigger points at the emergence of the greater
occipital nerve or in the area of distribution
of C2
E. Pain is eased temporarily by local anaesthetic block
of the affected nerve
F. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The pain of 13.4 Occipital neuralgia may reach the
fronto-orbital area through trigeminocervical interneuronal
connections in the trigeminal spinal nuclei.
13.4 Occipital neuralgia must be distinguished from
occipital referral of pain arising from the atlantoaxial
or upper zygapophyseal joints or from tender trigger
points in neck muscles or their insertions.
13.5 Optic neuritis
Previously used term:
Retrobulbar neuritis.
Description:
Pain behind one or both eyes caused by demyelination
of the optic nerve(s) and accompanied by impairment
of central vision.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral or bilateral headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical, electrophysiological, imaging and/or
laboratory evidence confirming the presence of
optic neuritis
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relationship
to optic neuritis
2. headache has either or both of the following
features:
a) localized in retro-orbital, orbital, frontal and/
or temporal regions
b) aggravated by eye movement
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
13.5 Optic neuritis is often a manifestation of multiple
sclerosis. Pain may precede impairment of vision.
Clinical series report the prevalence of head pain in
optic neuritis to be about 90%.
There is a high incidence (90%) of pain with eye
movement when there is an orbital segment enhancement
in cranial MRI, and a high
probability (70%) of no such pain when there is no
enhancement.
13.6 Headache attributed to ischaemic ocular motor
nerve palsy
Description:
Unilateral frontal and/or periorbital pain caused by
and associated with other symptoms and/or clinical
signs of ischaemic paresis of the ipsilateral IIIrd, IVth
or VIth cranial nerve.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical and imaging findings confirming an ischaemic
ocular motor nerve palsy
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the motor nerve palsy
2. headache is localized around the ipsilateral brow
and eye
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The majority of ocular motor nerve palsies are painful,
regardless of the presence or absence of diabetes. 13.6
Headache attributed to ischaemic ocular motor nerve
palsy can occur prior to or concurrently with the
onset of diplopia.
Pain is most frequent in patients with IIIrd nerve
palsies, less so in VIth nerve paresis and least frequent
in cases of IVth nerve paresis.
13.7 Tolosa-Hunt syndrome
Description:
Unilateral orbital pain associated with paresis of one or
more of the IIIrd, IVth and/or VIth cranial nerves
caused by a granulomatous inflammation in the cavernous
sinus, superior orbital fissure or orbit.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Unilateral headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Both of the following:
1. granulomatous inflammation of the cavernous
sinus, superior orbital fissure or orbit, demonstrated
by MRI or biopsy
2. paresis of one or more of the ipsilateral IIIrd,
IVth and/or VIth cranial nerves
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C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has preceded paresis of the IIIrd, IVth
and/or VIth nerves by 2 weeks, or developed
with it
2. headache is localized around the ipsilateral brow
and eye
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Some reported cases of 13.7 Tolosa-Hunt syndrome had
additional involvement of the Vth nerve (commonly the
first division) or optic, VIIth or VIIIth nerves.
Sympathetic innervation of the pupil is occasionally
affected. The syndrome has been caused by granulomatous
material in the cavernous sinus, superior orbital
fissure or orbit in some biopsied cases.
Careful follow-up is required to exclude other causes
of painful ophthalmoplegia such as tumours, vasculitis,
basal meningitis, sarcoid or diabetes mellitus.
Pain and paresis of 13.7 Tolosa-Hunt syndrome
resolve when it is treated adequately with
corticosteroids.
13.8 Paratrigeminal oculosympathetic (Raeder's)
syndrome
Description:
Constant, unilateral pain in the distribution of the
ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve, sometimes
extending to the maxillary division, accompanied by
Horner's syndrome and caused by a disorder in the
middle cranial fossa or of the carotid artery.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Constant, unilateral headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Imaging evidence of underlying disease of either the
middle cranial fossa or of the ipsilateral carotid
artery
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the underlying disorder
2. headache has either or both of the following
features:
a) localized to the distribution of the ophthalmic
division of the trigeminal nerve, with or without
spread to the maxillary division
b) aggravated by eye movement
D. Ipsilateral Horner's syndrome
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
The original description of 13.8 Paratrigeminal oculosympathetic
(Raeder's) syndrome was useful because
the involvement of oculopupillary sympathetic fibres
indicated a lesion of the middle cranial fossa. It is
regarded as a classical example of clinico-anatomical
methodology in the early 20th century. Whether the
term Raeder's syndrome should be used today is heavily
debated, but painful Horner's syndrome is still considered
by some authors to be a diagnostically useful indication
of a middle cranial fossa lesion or of carotid
artery dissection.
13.9 Recurrent painful ophthalmoplegic neuropathy
Previously used term:
Ophthalmoplegic migraine.
Description:
Repeated attacks of paresis of one or more ocular cranial
nerves (commonly the IIIrd), with ipsilateral
headache.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two attacks fulfilling criterion B
B. Unilateral headache accompanied by ipsilateral paresis
of one, two or all three ocular motor nerves
C. Orbital, parasellar or posterior fossa lesion has been
excluded by appropriate investigation
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The old and inappropriate term ophthalmoplegic
migraine was rejected because this syndrome is not
migrainous but rather a recurrent painful neuropathy.
Recent data suggest that headache can develop up to
14 days prior to ocular motor paresis. Gadolinium
enhancement or nerve thickening can be demonstrated
using MRI. Treatment with corticosteroids is beneficial
in some patients.
13.10 Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)
Previously used terms:
Stomatodynia, or glossodynia when confined to the
tongue.
Description:
An intraoral burning or dysaesthetic sensation, recurring
daily for more than 2 hours per day over more
than 3 months, without clinically evident causative
lesions.
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Diagnostic criteria:
A. Oral pain fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Recurring daily for >2 hours per day for >3 months
C. Pain has both of the following characteristics:
1. burning quality
2. felt superficially in the oral mucosa
D. Oral mucosa is of normal appearance and clinical
examination including sensory testing is normal
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
The pain of 13.10 Burning mouth syndrome (BMS) is
usually bilateral and its intensity fluctuates. The most
common site is the tip of the tongue. Subjective dryness
of the mouth, dysaesthesia and altered taste may be
present.
There is a high menopausal female prevalence, and
some studies show comorbid psychosocial and psychiatric
disorders. Recent laboratory and brain imaging
investigations have indicated changes in central and
peripheral nervous systems.
Whether secondary burning mouth syndrome attributed
to a local (candidiasis, lichen planus, hyposalivation)
or systemic disorder (medication induced,
anaemia, deficiencies of vitamin B12 or folic acid,
Sjo¨ gren's syndrome, diabetes) should be considered as
an entity is a matter for debate. Current evidence does
not justify inclusion even in the Appendix.
13.11 Persistent idiopathic facial pain (PIFP)
Previously used term:
Atypical facial pain.
Description:
Persistent facial and/or oral pain, with varying presentations
but recurring daily for more than 2 hours per
day over more than 3 months, in the absence of clinical
neurological deficit.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Facial and/or oral pain fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Recurring daily for >2 hours per day for >3
months
C. Pain has both of the following characteristics:
1. poorly localized, and not following the distribution
of a peripheral nerve
2. dull, aching or nagging quality
D. Clinical neurological examination is normal
E. A dental cause has been excluded by appropriate
investigations
F. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
A wide variety of words are used to describe the character
of 13.11 Persistent idiopathic facial pain (PIFP)
but it is most often depicted as dull, nagging or aching.
It can have sharp exacerbations, and is aggravated by
stress. Pain may be described as either deep or superficial.
With time, it may spread to a wider area of the
craniocervical region.
13.11 Persistent idiopathic facial pain (PIFP) may be
comorbid with other pain conditions such as chronic
widespread pain and irritable bowel syndrome. In addition,
it presents with high levels of psychiatric comorbidity
and psychosocial disability.
A continuum seems to exist from 13.11 Persistent
idiopathic facial pain (PIFP) induced by insignificant
trauma to 13.1.2.3 Painful post-traumatic trigeminal
neuropathy caused obviously by significant insult to
the peripheral nerves. 13.11 Persistent idiopathic facial
pain (PIFP) may originate from a minor operation or
injury to the face, maxillae, teeth or gums but persist
after healing of the initial noxious event and without
any demonstrable local cause. However, psychophysical
or neurophysiological tests may demonstrate sensory
abnormalities.
The term atypical odontalgia has been applied to a
continuous pain in one or more teeth or in a tooth
socket after extraction, in the absence of any usual
dental cause. This is thought to be a subform of 13.11
Persistent idiopathic facial pain (PIFP), although it is
more localized, the mean age at onset is younger and
genders are more balanced. Based on the history of
trauma, atypical odontalgia may also be a subform of
13.1.2.3 Painful post-traumatic trigeminal neuropathy.
These subforms, if they exist, have not been sufficiently
studied to propose diagnostic criteria.
13.12 Central neuropathic pain
Description:
Unilateral or bilateral craniocervical pain with variable
presentation, with or without sensory changes, of central
origin. Depending on the cause, it may be constant
or remitting and relapsing.
13.12.1 Central neuropathic pain attributed to multiple
sclerosis (MS)
Description:
Unilateral or bilateral craniocervical pain with variable
presentation, with or without sensory changes, attributed
to a demyelinating lesion of the central ascending
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782 Cephalalgia 33(9)
connections of the trigeminal nerve in a person with
multiple sclerosis. It commonly remits and relapses.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Facial and/or head pain fulfilling criterion C
B. Multiple sclerosis (MS) has been diagnosed, with
MRI demonstration of a demyelinating lesion in
the brain stem or ascending projections of the trigeminal
nuclei
C. Pain has developed in temporal relation to the
demyelinating lesion, or led to its discovery
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Non-painful sensory abnormalities (usually dysaesthesia
but also hypoaesthesia, anaesthesia, hypoalgesia,
paraesthesia, etc.) may coexist with pain in 13.12.1
Central neuropathic pain attributed to multiple sclerosis
(MS). Pain may be paroxysmal, as in 13.1.2.4 Painful
trigeminal neuropathy attributed to multiple sclerosis
(MS) plaque, or continuous.
13.12.2 Central post-stroke pain (CPSP)
Description:
Usually unilateral facial and/or head pain, with varying
presentations involving parts or all of the craniocervical
region and associated with impaired
sensation, occurring within 6 months of and caused
by stroke. It is not explicable by a lesion of the
peripheral trigeminal or other cranial or cervical
nerves.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Facial and/or head pain fulfilling criterion C
B. Ischaemic or haemorrhagic stroke has occurred
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. pain has developed within 6 months after the
stroke
2. imaging (usually MRI) has demonstrated a vascular
lesion in an appropriate site
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
13.12.2 Central post-stroke pain (CPSP) is attributed
to a lesion of the ascending projections of the trigeminal
nuclei. Cervical spinothalamic pathways and cortical
processing may also play a significant role.
Therefore, symptoms may also involve the trunk and
limbs of the affected side.
Craniocervical pain following a thalamic lesion is
part of a hemisyndrome. With lateral medullary lesions,
hemifacial pain may occur in isolation but is more often
accompanied by crossed hemidysaesthesia.
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13.9 Recurrent painful ophthalmoplegic
neuropathy
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13.10 Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)
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13.12 Central neuropathic pain
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13.12.1 Central neuropathic pain attributed to
multiple sclerosis (MS)
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in multiple sclerosis using high-resolution MRI at 3 T. Br
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Fitzek S, Baumgartner U, Fitzek C, et al. Mechanisms and
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Hong JH, Bai DS, Jeong JY, et al. Injury of the spino-thalamocortical
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14. Other headache disorders
14.1 Headache not elsewhere classified
14.2 Headache unspecified
Introduction
In order to make this classification exhaustive there
are, in appropriate cases, subcategories for conditions
that fulfil all but one criterion for specific disorders.
Still there may be headaches that cannot fit
into any of the existing chapters because they are
being described for the first time, or because there
simply is not enough information available. This
chapter is intended for these types or subtypes of
headaches.
14.1 Headache not elsewhere classified
Previously used term:
Headache not classifiable.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache with characteristic features suggesting
that it is a unique diagnostic entity
B. Does not fulfil criteria for any of the headache disorders
described above.
Comment:
Several new headache entities have been described in
the time between the first edition of The International
Classification of Headache Disorders and this third edition.
It is anticipated that there are more entities still to
be described. Such headaches, until classified, can be
coded as 14.1 Headache not elsewhere classified.
14.2 Headache unspecified
Previously used term:
Headache not classifiable.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache is or has been present
B. Not enough information is available to classify the
headache at any level of this classification.
Comment:
It is also apparent that a diagnosis must be made in a
large number of patients where very little information is
available, allowing only to state that they have headache
but not which type of headache. Such patients are
coded as 14.2 Headache unspecified. This code, however,
must never be used as an excuse for not gathering
detailed information about a headache when such
information is available. It should be used only in situations
where information cannot be obtained because
the patient is dead, unable to communicate or
unavailable.
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Appendix
A1. Migraine
A2. Tension-type headache (alternative criteria)
A3. Trigeminal-autonomic cephalalgias (TACs)
A4. Other primary headache disorders
A5. Headache attributed to trauma or injury to the head and/or neck
A6. Headache attributed to cranial or cervical vascular disorder
A7. Headache attributed to non-vascular intracranial disorder
A8. Headache attributed to a substance or its withdrawal
A9. Headache attributed to infection
A10. Headache attributed to disorder of homoeostasis
A11. Headache or facial pain attributed to disorder of the cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or
other facial or cervical structure
A12. Headache attributed to psychiatric disorder
788 Cephalalgia 33(9)
A1. Migraine
A1.1 Migraine without aura
A1.1.1 Pure menstrual migraine without aura
A1.1.2 Menstrually related migraine without aura
A1.1.3 Non-menstrual migraine without aura
A1.2 Migraine with aura (alternative criteria)
A1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura (alternative criteria)
A1.3 Chronic migraine (alternative criteria)
A1.3.1 Chronic migraine with pain-free periods
A1.3.2 Chronic migraine with continuous pain
A1.4 Complications of migraine
A1.4.5 Migraine aura status
A1.6 Episodic syndromes that may be associated with migraine
A1.6.4 Infantile colic
A1.6.5 Alternating hemiplegia of childhood
A1.6.6 Vestibular migraine
A2. Tension-type headache (alternative criteria)
A3. Trigeminal-autonomic cephalalgias (TACs)
A3.6 Undifferentiated trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia
A4. Other primary headache disorders
A4.11 Epicrania fugax
A5. Headache attributed to trauma or injury to the head and/or neck
A5.1 Acute headache attributed to traumatic injury to the head
A5.1.1.1 Delayed-onset acute headache attributed to moderate or severe traumatic injury to the head
A5.1.2.1 Delayed-onset acute headache attributed to mild traumatic injury to the head
A5.2 Persistent headache attributed to traumatic injury to the head
A5.2.1.1 Delayed-onset persistent headache attributed to moderate or severe traumatic injury to the
head
A5.2.2.1 Delayed-onset persistent headache attributed to mild traumatic injury to the head
A5.7 Headache attributed to radiosurgery of the brain
A5.8 Acute headache attributed to other trauma or injury to the head and/or neck
A5.9 Persistent headache attributed to other trauma or injury to the head and/or neck
A6. Headache attributed to cranial or cervical vascular disorder
A6.10 Persistent headache attributed to past cranial or cervical vascular disorder
A7. Headache attributed to non-vascular intracranial disorder
A7.6 Headache attributed to epileptic seizure
A7.6.3 Post-electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) headache
A7.9 Persistent headache attributed to past non-vascular intracranial disorder
A8. Headache attributed to a substance or its withdrawal
A8.4 Persistent headache attributed to past use of or exposure to a substance
A9. Headache attributed to infection
A9.1 Headache attributed to intracranial infection
A9.1.3.3 Persistent headache attributed to past intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection
A9.1.6 Headache attributed to other infective space-occupying lesion
A9.3 Headache attributed to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection
A10. Headache attributed to disorder of homoeostasis
A10.7 Head and/or neck pain attributed to orthostatic (postural) hypotension
A10.8 Headache attributed to other disorder of homeostasis
A10.8.1 Headache attributed to travel in space
A10.8.2 Headache attributed to other metabolic or systemic disorder
A10.9 Persistent headache attributed to past disorder of homoeostasis
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A11. Headache or facial pain attributed to disorder of the cranium, neck, eyes, ears, nose, sinuses, teeth,
mouth or other facial or cervical structure
A11.2 Headache attributed to disorder of the neck
A11.2.4 Headache attributed to upper cervical radiculopathy
A11.2.5 Headache attributed to cervical myofascial pain
A11.5 Headache attributed to disorder of the nose or paranasal sinuses
A11.5.3 Headache attributed to disorder of the nasal mucosa, turbinates or septum
A12. Headache attributed to psychiatric disorder
A12.3 Headache attributed to depressive disorder
A12.4 Headache attributed to separation anxiety disorder
A12.5 Headache attributed to panic disorder
A12.6 Headache attributed to specific phobia
A12.7 Headache attributed to social anxiety disorder (social phobia)
A12.8 Headache attributed to generalized anxiety disorder
A12.9 Headache attributed to post-traumatic stress disorder
A12.10 Headache attributed to acute stress disorder
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Introduction
An Appendix was first added to the second edition of
The International Classification of Headache Disorders
(ICHD-II). It had several purposes, which are retained
in ICHD-3 beta.
The primary purpose of the Appendix is to present
research criteria for a number of novel entities that
have not been sufficiently validated by research conducted
so far. The experience of the experts in the
Classification Committee, and publications of variable
quality, suggest that there are still a number of diagnostic
entities that are believed to be real but for which
better scientific evidence must be presented before they
can be formally accepted. Therefore, as happened
between ICHD-II and ICHD-3 beta, it is anticipated
that some disorders now in the Appendix will move
into the main body of the classification at the next
revision.
In a few places the Appendix presents alternative
sets of diagnostic criteria to those in the main body of
the classification. This is again because clinical experience
and a certain amount of published evidence suggest
that the alternative criteria may be preferable, but
the committee does not yet feel that the evidence is
sufficient to change the main classification.
Finally, the Appendix is used as a first step in eliminating
disorders historically included as diagnostic
entities in previous editions of ICHD, but for which
sufficient evidence has still not been published.
International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 791
A1. Migraine
A1.1 Migraine without aura
A1.1.1 Pure menstrual migraine without aura
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks, in a menstruating woman,1 fulfilling criteria
for 1.1 Migraine without aura and criterion B
below
B. Documented and prospectively recorded evidence
over at least three consecutive cycles has confirmed
that attacks occur exclusively on day 1 2 (i.e. days
2 to þ3)2 of menstruation1 in at least two out of
three menstrual cycles and at no other times of the
cycle.
Notes:
1. For the purposes of ICHD-3 beta, menstruation is
considered to be endometrial bleeding resulting
from either the normal menstrual cycle or from
the withdrawal of exogenous progestogens, as in
the use of combined oral contraceptives or cyclical
hormone replacement therapy.
2. The first day of menstruation is day 1 and the preceding
day is day 1; there is no day 0.
A1.1.2 Menstrually related migraine without aura
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks, in a menstruating woman,1 fulfilling criteria
for 1.1 Migraine without aura and criterion B
below
B. Documented and prospectively recorded evidence
over at least three consecutive cycles has confirmed
that attacks occur on day 1 2 (i.e. days 2 to þ3)2
of menstruation1 in at least two out of three menstrual
cycles, and additionally at other times of the
cycle.
Notes:
1. For the purposes of ICHD-3 beta, menstruation is
considered to be endometrial bleeding resulting
from either the normal menstrual cycle or from
the withdrawal of exogenous progestogens, as in
the use of combined oral contraceptives or cyclical
hormone replacement therapy.
2. The first day of menstruation is day 1 and the preceding
day is day 1; there is no day 0.
A1.1.3 Non-menstrual migraine without aura
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Attacks, in a menstruating woman,1 fulfilling criteria
for 1.1 Migraine without aura and criterion B
below
B. Attacks do not fulfil criterion B for A1.1.1 Pure
menstrual migraine without aura or A1.1.2
Menstrually related migraine without aura.
Note:
1. For the purposes of ICHD-3 beta, menstruation is
considered to be endometrial bleeding resulting
from either the normal menstrual cycle or from
the withdrawal of exogenous progestogens, as in
the use of combined oral contraceptives or cyclical
hormone replacement therapy.
Comments:
This subclassification of 1.1 Migraine without aura is
clearly applicable only to menstruating women as
defined above.
The importance of distinguishing between A1.1.1
Pure menstrual migraine without aura and A1.1.2
Menstrually related migraine without aura is that hormone
prophylaxis is more likely to be effective for the
former. Documented prospectively recorded evidence,
kept for a minimum of three cycles, is necessary to
confirm the diagnosis because many women overreport
an association between attacks and
menstruation.
Menstrual attacks are mostly migraine without aura.
In women who have both 1.1 Migraine without aura
and 1.2 Migraine with aura, the latter does not appear
to be associated with menstruation.
The mechanism(s) of migraine may be different
with endometrial bleeding resulting from the normal
menstrual cycle and bleeding as a result of the withdrawal
of exogenous progestogens (as occurs with
combined oral contraception and cyclical hormone
replacement therapy). For example, the endogenous
menstrual cycle results from complex hormonal
changes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis
resulting in ovulation, which is suppressed by use of
combined oral contraceptives. Therefore research
should separate these subpopulations. Management
strategies may also differ for these distinct
subpopulations.
There is some evidence that menstrual migraine
attacks, at least in some women, result from oestrogen
withdrawal, although other hormonal and biochemical
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792 Cephalalgia 33(9)
changes at this time of the cycle may also be relevant.
When pure menstrual migraine or menstrually related
migraine is considered to be associated with exogenous
oestrogen withdrawal, both codes A1.1.1 Pure menstrual
migraine without aura or A1.1.2 Menstrually
related migraine without aura and 8.3.3 Oestrogenwithdrawal
headache should be used.
The menstrual relation may change over a woman's
reproductive lifetime.
A1.2 Migraine with aura (alternative criteria)
Alternative diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two attacks fulfilling criteria B and C
B. One or more of the following fully reversible aura
symptoms:
1. visual
2. sensory
3. speech and/or language
4. motor
5. brainstem
6. retinal
C. At least three of the following six characteristics:
1. at least one aura symptom spreads gradually
over 5 minutes
2. two or more aura symptoms occur in succession
3. each individual aura symptom lasts 5–60 min1
4. at least one aura symptom is unilateral2
5. at least one aura symptom is positive3
6. the aura is accompanied, or followed within 60
minutes, by headache
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Notes:
1. When, for example, three symptoms occur during
an aura, the acceptable maximal duration is 3 60
minutes. Motor symptoms may last up to 72 hours.
2. Aphasia is always regarded as a unilateral symptom;
dysarthria may or may not be.
3. Scintillations and pins and needles are positive
symptoms of aura.
A1.2.1 Migraine with typical aura (alternative criteria)
Alternative diagnostic criteria:
A. At least two attacks fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Aura consisting of visual, sensory and or speech/
language symptoms, each fully reversible, but no
motor, brainstem or retinal symptoms
C. At least three of the following six characteristics:
1. at least one aura symptom spreads gradually
over 5 minutes
2. two or more aura symptoms occur in succession
3. each individual aura symptom lasts 5–60
minutes1
4. at least one aura symptom is unilateral2
5. at least one aura symptom is positive3
6. the aura is accompanied, or followed within 60
minutes, by headache
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Notes:
1. When for example three symptoms occur during an
aura, the acceptable maximal duration is 3 60
minutes.
2. Aphasia is always regarded as a unilateral symptom;
dysarthria may or may not be.
3. Scintillations and pins and needles are positive
symptoms of aura.
A1.3 Chronic migraine (alternative criteria)
Alternative diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache (tension-type-like and/or migraine-like)
on 15 days per month for >3 months and fulfilling
criteria B and C
B. Occurring in a patient who has had at least five
attacks fulfilling criteria B–D for 1.1 Migraine without
aura and/or criteria B and C for 1.2 Migraine
with aura
C. On 8 days per month for >3 months fulfilling any
of the following:
1. criteria C and D for 1.1 Migraine without aura
2. criteria B and C for 1.2 Migraine with aura
3. criteria A and B for 1.5 Probable migraine
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A1.3.1 Chronic migraine with pain-free periods
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 1.3 Chronic migraine
and criterion B below
B. Interrupted by pain-free periods of >3 hours on 5
days per month which are not attributed to drug
treatment.
International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 793
A1.3.2 Chronic migraine with continuous pain
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criteria for 1.3 Chronic migraine
and criterion B below
B. Not interrupted by pain-free periods of >3 hours on
5 days per month unless these are attributed to
drug treatment.
A1.4 Complications of migraine
A1.4.5 Migraine aura status
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Migraine fulfilling criteria for 1.2 Migraine with
aura or one of its subtypes
B. At least two auras occur per day for 3 days.
Comment:
Other neurological disorders including reversible cerebral
vasoconstriction syndrome, posterior reversible
encephalopathy syndrome and arterial dissection
should be excluded by appropriate investigation.
A1.6 Episodic syndromes that may be associated with
migraine
A1.6.4 Infantile colic
Description:
Excessive, frequent crying in a baby who appears to be
otherwise healthy and well fed.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent episodes of irritability, fussing or crying
from birth to 4 months of age, fulfilling criterion B
B. Both of the following:
1. episodes last for 3 hours per day
2. episodes occur on 3 days per week for 3
weeks
C. Not attributed to another disorder.
Comments:
Infantile colic affects one baby in five, but failure to
thrive needs to be excluded.
Infants with colic have a higher likelihood of developing
1.1 Migraine without aura or 1.2 Migraine with
aura later in life. Mothers with 1. Migraine have been
found to be 2.5 times more likely to have infants with
colic than mothers without. For fathers with 1.
Migraine, the likelihood of an infant with colic was
increased two-fold.
A1.6.5 Alternating hemiplegia of childhood
Description:
Infantile attacks of hemiplegia involving each side alternately,
associated with a progressive encephalopathy,
other paroxysmal phenomena and mental impairment.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent attacks of hemiplegia alternating between
the two sides of the body and fulfilling criteria B
and C
B. Onset before the age of 18 months
C. At least one other paroxysmal phenomenon is associated
with the bouts of hemiplegia or occurs independently,
such as tonic spells, dystonic posturing,
choreoathetoid movements, nystagmus or other
ocular motor abnormalities and/or autonomic
disturbances
D. Evidence of mental and/or neurological deficit(s)
E. Not attributed to another disorder.
Comment:
This is a heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorder. A
relationship with migraine is suggested on clinical
grounds. The possibility that it is an unusual form of
epilepsy cannot be ruled out. Mutations in the ATP1A3
gene (encoding the sodium-potassium [Naþ/Kþ]
ATPase a3 subunit) are likely to be responsible for at
least 70% of cases.
A1.6.5 Vestibular migraine
Previously used terms:
Migraine-associated vertigo/dizziness; migraine-related
vestibulopathy; migrainous vertigo.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. At least five episodes fulfilling criteria C and D
B. A current or past history of 1.1 Migraine without
aura or 1.2 Migraine with aura1
C. Vestibular symptoms2 of moderate or severe intensity,
3 lasting between 5 minutes and 72 hours4
D. At least 50% of episodes are associated with at least
one of the following three migrainous features5:
1. headache with at least two of the following four
characteristics:
a) unilateral location
b) pulsating quality
c) moderate or severe intensity
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794 Cephalalgia 33(9)
d) aggravation by routine physical activity
2. photophobia and phonophobia6
3. visual aura7
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis
or by another vestibular disorder8.
Notes:
1. Code also for the underlying migraine diagnosis.
2. Vestibular symptoms, as defined by the Ba´ ra´ny
Society's Classification of Vestibular Symptoms
and qualifying for a diagnosis of A1.6.5
Vestibular migraine, include:
a) spontaneous vertigo:
(i) internal vertigo (a false sensation of selfmotion);
(ii) external vertigo (a false sensation that the
visual surround is spinning or flowing);
b) positional vertigo, occurring after a change of
head position;
c) visually induced vertigo, triggered by a complex
or large moving visual stimulus;
d) head motion-induced vertigo, occurring
during head motion;
e) head motion-induced dizziness with nausea
(dizziness is characterized by a sensation of
disturbed spatial orientation; other forms of
dizziness are currently not included in the
classification of vestibular migraine).
3. Vestibular symptoms are rated moderate when they
interfere with but do not prevent daily activities
and severe when daily activities cannot be
continued.
4. Duration of episodes is highly variable. About
30% of patients have episodes lasting minutes,
30% have attacks for hours and another 30%
have attacks over several days. The remaining
10% have attacks lasting seconds only, which
tend to occur repeatedly during head motion,
visual stimulation or after changes of head position.
In these patients, episode duration is defined
as the total period during which short attacks
recur. At the other end of the spectrum, there
are patients who may take 4 weeks to recover
fully from an episode. However, the core episode
rarely exceeds 72 hours.
5. One symptom is sufficient during a single episode.
Different symptoms may occur during different episodes.
Associated symptoms may occur before,
during or after the vestibular symptoms.
6. Phonophobia is defined as sound-induced discomfort.
It is a transient and bilateral phenomenon that
must be differentiated from recruitment, which is
often unilateral and persistent. Recruitment leads
to an enhanced perception and often distortion of
loud sounds in an ear with decreased hearing.
7. Visual auras are characterized by bright scintillating
lights or zigzag lines, often with a scotoma that
interferes with reading. Visual auras typically
expand over 5–20 minutes and last for less than
60 minutes. They are often, but not always
restricted to one hemifield. Other types of migraine
aura, for example somatosensory or dysphasic
aura, are not included as diagnostic criteria because
their phenomenology is less specific and most
patients also have visual auras.
8. History and physical examinations do not suggest
another vestibular disorder or such a disorder has
been considered but ruled out by appropriate investigations
or such a disorder is present as a comorbid
or independent condition, but episodes can be
clearly differentiated. Migraine attacks may be
induced by vestibular stimulation. Therefore, the
differential diagnosis should include other vestibular
disorders complicated by superimposed
migraine attacks.
Comments:
Other symptoms
Transient auditory symptoms, nausea, vomiting, prostration
and susceptibility to motion sickness may be
associated with A1.6.5 Vestibular migraine. However,
as they also occur with various other vestibular disorders,
they are not included as diagnostic criteria.
Relation to migraine aura and migraine with
brainstem aura
Both migraine aura and migraine with brainstem aura
(formerly: basilar-type migraine) are terms defined by
ICHD-3 beta. Only a minority of patients with A1.6.5
Vestibular migraine experience their vertigo in the
time frame of 5–60 minutes as defined for an aura
symptom. Even fewer have their vertigo immediately
before headache starts, as required for 1.2.1.1 Typical
aura with headache. Therefore, episodes of A1.6.5
Vestibular migraine cannot be regarded as migraine
auras.
Although vertigo is reported by more than 60% of
patients with 1.2.2 Migraine with brainstem aura,
ICHD-3 beta requires at least two brainstem symptoms
in addition to visual, sensory or dysphasic aura symptoms
for this diagnosis. Fewer than 10% of patients
with A1.6.5 Vestibular migraine fulfil these criteria.
Therefore, A1.6.5 Vestibular migraine and 1.2.2
Migraine with brainstem aura are not synonymous,
although individual patients may meet the diagnostic
criteria for both disorders.
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ICHD-3 beta 795
Relation to benign paroxysmal vertigo
Although A1.6.5 Vestibular migraine may start at any
age, ICHD-3 beta specifically recognizes a childhood disorder,
1.6.2 Benign paroxysmal vertigo. The diagnosis
requires five episodes of vertigo, occurring without warning
and resolving spontaneously after minutes to hours.
Between episodes, neurological examination, audiometry,
vestibular functions and EEG must be normal. A unilateral
throbbing headache may occur during attacks but is
not a mandatory criterion. 1.6.2 Benign paroxysmal vertigo
is regarded as one of the precursor syndromes of
migraine. Therefore, previous migraine headaches are
not required for diagnosis. As the classification of
A1.6.5 Vestibular migraine does not involve any age
limit, the diagnosis can be applied in children when the
respective criteria are met. Only children with different
types of vertigo attacks, for example short-duration episodes
of less than 5 minutes and longer-lasting ones of
more than 5 minutes, should receive both these diagnoses.
Overlap with Menie`re's disease
1. Migraine is more common in patients with Menie`re's
disease than in healthy controls. Many patients with features
of both Menie`re's disease and A1.6.5 Vestibular
migraine have been reported. In fact, migraine and
Menie`re's disease can be inherited as a symptom cluster.
Fluctuating hearing loss, tinnitus and aural pressure may
occur in A1.6.5 Vestibular migraine, but hearing loss
does not progress to profound levels. Similarly, migraine
headaches, photophobia and even migraine auras are
common duringMenie`re attacks. The pathophysiological
relationship between A1.6.5 Vestibular migraine and
Menie`re's disease remains uncertain. In the first year
after onset of symptoms, differentiation between them
may be challenging, as Menie`re's disease can be monosymptomatic
with only vestibular symptoms in the early
stages of the disease.
When the criteria for Menie`re's disease are met,
particularly hearing loss as documented by audiometry,
Menie`re's disease should be diagnosed, evenwhenmigraine
symptoms occur during the vestibular attacks. Only
patients who have two different types of attacks, one
fulfilling the criteria for A1.6.5 Vestibular migraine
and the other for Menie`re's disease, should be diagnosed
with both disorders. A future revision of ICHD may
include a vestibular migraine/Menie`re's disease overlap
syndrome.
Bibliography
Bisdorff A, von Brevern M, Lempert T and Newman-Toker DE
(on behalf of the Committee for the Classification of
Vestibular Disorders of the Ba´ ra´ny Society). Classification of
vestibular symptoms: Towards an international classification
of vestibular disorders. J Vest Res 2009; 19: 1–13.
Brantberg K and Baloh RW. Similarity of vertigo attacks due to
Meniere's disease and benign recurrent vertigo both with and
without migraine. Acta Otolaryngol 2011; 131: 722–727.
Cass SP, Ankerstjerne JKP, Yetiser S, et al. Migraine-related
vestibulopathy. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1997; 106: 182–189.
Cutrer FM and Baloh RW. Migraine-associated dizziness.
Headache 1992; 32: 300–304.
Dieterich M and Brandt T. Episodic vertigo related to migraine
(90 cases): Vestibular migraine? J Neurol 1999; 246: 883–892.
LempertT,OlesenJ, FurmanJ, et al. Vestibular migraine:Diagnostic
criteria. Consensus document of the Ba´ ra´ny Society and the
International Headache Society. J Vest Res 2012; 22: 167–172.
Heinzen EL, Swoboda KJ, Hitomi Y, et al. De novo mutations in
ATP1A3 cause alternating hemiplegia of childhood. Nat Genet
2012; 44: 1030–1034.
Neff BA, Staab JP, Eggers SD, et al. Auditory and vestibular symptoms
and chronic subjective dizziness in patients with Meniere's
disease, vestibular migraine andMeniere's disease with concomitant
vestibular migraine. Otol Neurotol 2012; 33: 1235–1244.
Neuhauser H, Leopold M, von Brevern M, et al. The interrelations
of migraine, vertigo, and migrainous vertigo. Neurology
2001; 56: 436–441.
Neuhauser H, Radtke A, von Brevern M, et al. Migrainous vertigo:
Prevalence and impact on quality of life. Neurology 2006;
67: 1028–1033.
Oh AK, Lee H, Jen JC, et al. Familial benign recurrent vertigo.
Am J Med Genet 2001; 100: 287–291.
Radtke A, Neuhauser H, von Brevern M, et al. Vestibular
migraine – Validity of clinical diagnostic criteria. Cephalalgia
2011; 31: 906–913.
Versino M and Sances G. Dizziness and migraine: A causal relationship?
Funct Neurol 2003; 18: 97–101.
A2. Tension-type headache (alternative
criteria)
The following alternative criteria may be applied to
A2.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache, A2.2
Frequent episodic tension-type headache, A2.3 Chronic
tension-type headache. They define a core syndrome of
tension-type headache. In other words these criteria are
very specific but have low sensitivity.
Alternative diagnostic criteria:
A. Episodes, or headache, fulfilling criterion A for
[whichever of 2.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type
headache, 2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache
or 2.3 Chronic tension-type headache] and criteria
B–D below
B. Episodes, or headache, fulfil criterion B for [whichever
of 2.1 Infrequent episodic tension-type headache,
2.2 Frequent episodic tension-type headache or 2.3
Chronic tension-type headache]
C. Headache has at least three of the following four
characteristics:
1. bilateral location
2. pressing/tightening (non-pulsating) quality
International Headache Society 2013
796 Cephalalgia 33(9)
3. mild or moderate intensity
4. not aggravated by routine physical activity such
as walking or climbing stairs
D. No nausea, vomiting, photophobia or phonophobia
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A3. Trigeminal-autonomic cephalalgias
(TACs)
A3.6 Undifferentiated trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia
Description:
A trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia-like disorder
occurring in children and adolescents with characteristics
of the disorder not fully developed.
Comments:
Incomplete brain development may alter the presentation
of trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs).
Patients coded A3.6 Undifferentiated trigeminal autonomic
cephalalgia would, typically, be children or adolescents
whose headaches have characteristics strongly
suggestive of a TAC, but mixed and incomplete; for
example, they may have lateralized headache attacks
lasting 30 minutes with autonomic features, but without
the expected responses to indomethacin, oxygen or
triptans.
Longitudinal studies are required to understand
these presentations better and in order to propose criteria
for their diagnosis.
A4. Other primary headache disorders
A4.11 Epicrania fugax
Description:
Brief paroxysmal head pain, with stabbing quality,
describing a linear or zig-zag trajectory across the surface
of one hemicranium.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent stabbing head pain attacks lasting 1–10
seconds, fulfilling criterion B
B. The pain is felt to move across the surface of one
hemicranium in a linear or zig-zag trajectory, commencing
and terminating in the territories of different
nerves
C. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
A structural lesion must be excluded by history, physical
examination and, when appropriate, investigation.
Patients with A4.11 Epicrania fugax describe their
painful experience in terms of the trajectory of the
pain between two distant points on the head surface,
with motion from onset to termination taking just a few
seconds. Such dynamic topography is a distinctive attribute
that differentiates A4.11 Epicrania fugax from
other epicranial headaches and neuralgias. The onset
and termination points remain constant in each patient,
with the pain strictly unilateral, although some patients
have shifting sides. The pain usually moves forward,
but backward radiation is also possible. Forwardmoving
pain starts in a posterior hemicranial area
and tends to reach the ipsilateral eye or nose.
Backward-moving pain starts in a frontal or periorbital
area and tends to reach the occipital region. At the end
of the attacks, ipsilateral autonomic signs such as lacrimation,
conjunctival injection and/or rhinorrhoea may
occur.
Although the attacks are mostly spontaneous,
they may occasionally be triggered by touch on the
point of onset, which may remain tender in between
attacks.
Bibliography
Cuadrado ML, Go´ mez-Vicente L, Porta-Etessam J, et al.
Paroxysmal head pain with backward radiation. Will epicrania
fugax go in the opposite direction? J Headache Pain 2010; 11:
75–78.
Fontalba-Navas M and Arjona-Padillo A. Atypical migraine
progressing from nummular headache to epicrania fugax.
Neurologia 2011; 26: 60–61.
Guerrero AL, Cuadrado ML, Porta-Etessam J, et al. Epicrania
fugax: Ten new cases and therapeutic results. Headache 2010;
50: 451–458.
Herrero-Vela´ zquez S, Guerrero-Peral A ´ L, Mulero P, et al.
Epicrania fugax: The clinical characteristics of a series of 18
patients. Rev Neurol 2011; 53: 531–537.
Mulero P, Guerrero AL, Herrero-Vela´ zquez S, et al. Epicrania
Fugax with backward radiation. Clinical characteristics of 9
new cases. J Headache Pain 2011; 12: 535–539.
Pareja JA, Alvarez M and Montojo T. Epicrania fugax with
backward radiation. J Headache Pain 2012; 13: 175.
Pareja JA, Cuadrado ML, Ferna´ ndez de las Pen˜ as C, et al.
Epicrania fugax: An ultrabrief paroxysmal epicranial pain.
Cephalalgia 2008; 28: 257–263.
A5. Headache attributed to trauma or
injury to the head and/or neck
A5.1 Acute headache attributed to traumatic injury to
the head
Comment:
The current stipulation that headache must begin (or be
reported to have begun) within 7 days of head injury
(or awareness of the injury) is somewhat arbitrary.
Some data suggest that headache may begin after a
longer interval. Future studies should continue to
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investigate the utility of diagnostic criteria for A5.1
Acute headache attributed to traumatic injury to the
head that allow for headache to begin up to 30 days
after the injury.
A5.1.1.1 Delayed-onset acute headache attributed to
moderate or severe traumatic injury to the head
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Traumatic injury to the head has occurred, associated
with at least one of the following:
1. loss of consciousness for >30 minutes
2. Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) <13
3. post-traumatic amnesia lasting >24 hours
4. alteration in level of awareness for >24 hours
5. imaging evidence of a traumatic head injury such
as intracranial haemorrhage and/or brain
contusion
C. Time of onset of headache is uncertain, and/or
headache is reported to have developed >7 days
after all of the following:
1. the head injury
2. regaining of consciousness following the head
injury (when applicable)
3. discontinuation of medication(s) that impair
ability to sense or report headache following
the head injury (when applicable)o
D. Either of the following:
1. headache has resolved within 3 months after the
head injury
2. headache has not yet resolved but 3 months have
not yet passed since the head injury
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A5.1.2.1 Delayed-onset acute headache attributed to mild
traumatic injury to the head
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Traumatic injury to the head has occurred, fulfilling
both of the following:
1. associated with none of the following:
a) loss of consciousness for >30 minutes
b) Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) <13
c) post-traumatic amnesia lasting >24 hours
d) altered level of awareness for >24 hours
e) imaging evidence of a traumatic head injury
such as intracranial haemorrhage and/or
brain contusion
2. associated, immediately following the head
injury, with one or more of the following symptoms
and/or signs:
a) transient confusion, disorientation or
impaired consciousness
b) loss of memory for events immediately before
or after the injury
c) two or more other symptoms suggestive of
mild traumatic brain injury: nausea, vomiting,
visual disturbances, dizziness and/or vertigo,
impaired memory and/or concentration
C. Time of onset of headache is uncertain, and/or
headache is reported to have developed >7 days
after all of the following:
1. the head injury
2. regaining of consciousness following the head
injury (when applicable)
3. discontinuation of medication(s) that impair
ability to sense or report headache following
the head injury (when applicable)o
D. Either of the following:
1. headache has resolved within 3 months after the
head injury
2. headache has not yet resolved but 3 months have
not yet passed since the head injury
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A5.2 Persistent headache attributed to traumatic injury to
the head
Comment:
The current stipulation that headache must begin (or be
reported to have begun) within 7 days of head injury
(or awareness of the injury) is somewhat arbitrary.
Some data suggest that headache may begin after a
longer interval. Future studies should continue to investigate
the utility of diagnostic criteria for A5.2
Persistent headache attributed to traumatic injury to
the head that allow for headache to begin up to 30
days after the injury.
A5.2.1.1 Delayed-onset persistent headache attributed to
moderate or severe traumatic injury to the head
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Traumatic injury to the head has occurred, associated
with at least one of the following:
1. loss of consciousness for >30 minutes
2. Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) <13
3. post-traumatic amnesia lasting >24 hours
4. alteration in level of awareness for >24 hours
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798 Cephalalgia 33(9)
5. imaging evidence of a traumatic head injury such
as intracranial haemorrhage and/or brain
contusion.
C. Time of onset of headache is uncertain, and/or
headache is reported to have developed >7 days
after all of the following:
1. the head injury
2. regaining of consciousness following the head
injury (when applicable)
3. discontinuation of medication(s) that impair
ability to sense or report headache following
the head injury (when applicable)
D. Headache persists for >3 months after the head
injury
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A5.2.2.1 Delayed-onset persistent headache attributed to
mild traumatic injury to the head
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Traumatic injury to the head has occurred, fulfilling
both of the following:
1. associated with none of the following:
a) loss of consciousness for >30 minutes
b) Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) <13
c) post-traumatic amnesia lasting >24 hours
d) altered level of awareness for >24 hours
e) imaging evidence of a traumatic head injury
such as intracranial haemorrhage and/or
brain contusion
2. associated, immediately following the head
injury, with one or more of the following symptoms
and/or signs:
a) transient confusion, disorientation or
impaired consciousness
b) loss of memory for events immediately before
or after the injury
c) two or more other symptoms suggestive of
mild traumatic brain injury: nausea, vomiting,
visual disturbances, dizziness and/or vertigo,
impaired memory and/or concentration
C. Time of onset of headache is uncertain, and/or
headache is reported to have developed >7 days
after all of the following:
1. the head injury
2. regaining of consciousness following the head
injury (when applicable)
3. discontinuation of medication(s) that impair
ability to sense or report headache following
the head injury (when applicable)
D. Headache persists for >3 months after the head
injury
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A5.7 Headache attributed to radiosurgery of the brain
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Radiosurgery of the brain has been performed
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has developed within 7 days after
radiosurgery
2. headache has resolved within 3 months after
radiosurgery
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Although de novo headache has been described after
radiosurgery, most studies do not provide detailed
descriptions of its clinical characteristics, neither is
it usually clear whether headache occurring after
radiosurgery represents an exacerbation of an underlying
headache disorder or a new headache. In cases
where a previous history of headache was not present,
the headache syndrome was short-lived,
occurred more than a year after the procedure,
and resembled migraine or thunderclap headache.
Therefore, causal relationships between these headaches
and the radiosurgical procedures preceding
them were highly doubtful. Carefully controlled
prospective studies are necessary to determine
whether A5.7 Headache attributed to radiosurgery of
the brain exists as an entity and, if so, how it is
related to the type and location of the lesion being
irradiated and/or the dosage and radiation field
employed.
A5.8 Acute headache attributed to other trauma or injury
to the head and/or neck
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Trauma or injury to the head and/or neck of a type
not described above has occurred
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to the trauma or injury
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2. other evidence exists of causation by the trauma
or injury
D. Either of the following:
1. headache has resolved within 3 months after the
trauma or injury
2. headache persists but 3 months have not yet
passed since the trauma or injury
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A5.9 Persistent headache attributed to other trauma
or injury to the head and/or neck
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criteria C and D
B. Trauma or injury to the head and/or neck of a type
not described above has occurred
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by either or
both of the following:
1. headache has developed in close temporal relation
to the trauma or injury
2. other evidence exists of causation by the trauma
or injury
D. Headache persists for >3 months after the trauma
or injury
E. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Bibliography
Lucas S, Hoffman JM, Bell KR, et al. Characterization of
headache after traumatic brain injury. Cephalalgia 2012; 32:
600–606.
Theeler BJ and Erickson JC. Post-traumatic headaches:
Time for a revised classification? Cephalalgia 2012; 32:
589–591.
Theeler BJ, Flynn FG and Erickson JC. Headaches after concussion
in US soldiers returning from Iraq or Afghanistan.
Headache 2010; 50: 1262–1272.
A6. Headache attributed to cranial or
cervical vascular disorder
A6.10 Persistent headache attributed to past cranial or
cervical vascular disorder
A. Headache previously diagnosed as 6. Headache
attributed to cranial or cervical vascular disorder or
one of its subtypes or subforms, and fulfilling criterion
C
B. The cranial or cervical vascular disorder causing the
headache has been effectively treated or has spontaneously
remitted
C. Headache has persisted for >3 months after effective
treatment or spontaneous remission of the vascular
disorder
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Headaches meeting the criteria for A6.10 Persistent
headache attributed to past cranial or cervical vascular
disorder, if they exist, have been poorly documented;
research is needed to establish better criteria for
causation.
A7. Headache attributed to non-vascular
intracranial disorder
A7.6 Headache attributed to epileptic seizure
A7.6.3 Post-electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) headache
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Recurrent headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A course of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has
been given
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by all of the
following:
1. headache has developed after 50% of ECT
sessions
2. each headache has developed within 4 hours
after ECT
3. each headache has resolved within 72 hours after
ECT
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Clear descriptions of headache associated with electroconvulsive
therapy are sparse. Published data are not
adequate to define A7.6.3 Post-electroconvulsive therapy
(ECT) headache operationally.
A7.9 Persistent headache attributed to past non-vascular
intracranial disorder
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache previously diagnosed as 7. Headache
attributed to non-vascular intracranial disorder or
one of its subtypes or subforms, and fulfilling criterion
C
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B. The non-vascular intracranial disorder causing the
headache has been effectively treated or has spontaneously
remitted
C. Headache has persisted for >3 months after effective
treatment or spontaneous remission of the vascular
disorder
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Headaches meeting the criteria for A7.9 Persistent
headache attributed to past non-vascular intracranial disorder,
if they exist, have been poorly documented;
research is needed to establish better criteria for
causation.
Bibliography
Belcastro V, Striano P, Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenite´ DGA, et al.
Migralepsy, hemicrania epileptica, post-ictal headache and
''ictal epileptic headache'': A proposal for terminology and
classification revision. J Headache Pain 2011; 12: 289–294.
Canuet L, Ishii R, Iwase M, et al. Cephalic auras of supplementary
motor area origin: An ictal MEG and SAM(g2) study.
Epilepsy Behav 2008; 13: 570–574.
Dinwiddie SH, Huo D and Gottlieb O. The course of myalgia
and headache after electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT 2010; 26:
116–120.
Mendez MF, Doss RC, Taylor JL and Arguello R. Relationship
of seizure variables to personality disorders in epilepsy.
J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993; 5: 283–286.
Parisi P, Striano P, Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenite DGA, et al. 'Ictal
epileptic headache': Recent concepts for new classification criteria.
Cephalalgia 2012; 32: 723–724.
Schweder LJ, Wahlund B, Bergsholm P and Linaker OM.
Questionnaire study about the practice of electroconvulsive
therapy in Norway. J ECT 2011; 27: 296–299.
Siegel AM, Williamson PD, Roberts DW, et al. Localized pain
associated with seizures originating in the parietal lobe.
Epilepsia 1999; 40: 845–855.
Young GB and Blume WT. Painful epileptic seizures. Brain 1983;
106: 537–554.
A8. Headache attributed to a substance or
its withdrawal
A8.4 Persistent headache attributed to past use of or
exposure to a substance
Coded elsewhere:
8.2 Medication-overuse headache.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache previously diagnosed as 8.1 Headache
attributed to use of or exposure to a substance or
one of its subtypes, and fulfilling criterion C
B. Use of or exposure to the substance has ceased
C. Headache has persisted for >3 months after exposure
has ceased
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A9. Headache attributed to infection
A9.1 Headache attributed to intracranial infection
A9.1.3.3 Persistent headache attributed to past intracranial
fungal or other parasitic infection
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache previously fulfilling criteria for 9.1.3
Headache attributed to intracranial fungal or other
parasitic infection, and fulfilling criterion C
B. Intracranial fungal or other parasitic infection has
resolved
C. Headache has persisted for >3 months after resolution
of the intracranial fungal or other parasitic
infection
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis,
and hydrocephalus has been excluded by
neuroimaging.
A9.1.6 Headache attributed to other infective
space-occupying lesion
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. A space-occupying lesion of infective nature, other
than brain abscess or subdural empyema, has been
demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
development of the infective space-occupying
lesion, or led to its discovery
2. headache has significantly worsened in
parallel with deterioration of the infective
space-occupying lesion, shown by any of the
following:
a) worsening of other symptoms and/or clinical
signs arising from the infective space-occupying
lesion
b) evidence of enlargement of the infective spaceoccupying
lesion
c) evidence of rupture of the infective spaceoccupying
lesion
3. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the infective space-occupying
lesion
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4. headache has at least one of the following three
characteristics:
a) intensity increasing gradually to moderate or
severe
b) aggravated by straining or other Valsalva
manoeuvre
c) accompanied by nausea
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A9.3 Headache attributed to human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) infection
Coded elsewhere:
Headache occurring in patients with HIV infection but
caused by a specific opportunistic infection should be
coded to that infection. Headache caused by use of
antiretroviral drugs should be coded to 8.1.11
Headache attributed to long-term use of non-headache
medication.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Both of the following:
1. systemic HIV infection has been demonstrated
2. other ongoing systemic and/or intracranial infection
has been excluded
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of HIV infection
2. headache has developed or significantly worsened
in temporal relation to worsening of
HIV infection as indicated by CD4 cell count
and/or viral load
3. headache has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in HIV infection as indicated
by CD4 cell count and/or viral load
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comments:
Headache is reported by more than half of people
infected by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), and
may be a part of the symptomatology of both acute
and chronic HIV infection (through aseptic meningitis
and similar mechanisms). In most cases, headache is
dull and bilateral, or has the features of a primary headache
disorder (1. Migraine or 2. Tension-type headache).
Headache severity, frequency and disability seem associated
with severity of HIV infection as indicated by
CD4 cell count and/or viral load, but not with the
duration of HIV infection or the number of prescribed
antiretroviral medications. Only a minority of HIV
patients have headache attributable to opportunistic
infections, probably as a consequence of the availability
of highly active antiretroviral therapy.
The rationale for separating A9.3 Headache attributed
to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection
from headaches attributed to other infections is threefold:
a) HIV infection is always both systemic and within
the central nervous system;
b) the central nervous system infection may progress
independently of the systemic infection;
c) HIV infection is still not curable.
The positioning of A9.3 Headache attributed to human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection within the
Appendix has been deemed necessary because it is
extremely difficult to distinguish headache attributed
purely to HIV infection from the primary-like headaches
reported by most HIV patients. Application of
these criteria in prospective studies may provide more
conclusive evidence.
During HIV infection, secondary meningitis and/or
encephalitis associated with opportunistic infections or
neoplasms can develop. The most common intracranial
infections associated with HIV infection and causing
headache are toxoplasmosis and cryptococcal meningitis.
Headache occurring in patients with HIV infection
but attributed to a specific opportunistic infection
should be coded to that infection.
Antiretroviral drugs can also cause headache. In
these cases, the headache should be coded as 8.1.11
Headache attributed to long-term use of non-headache
medication.
Bibliography
Berger JR. Pearls: neurologic complications of HIV/AIDS. Semin
Neurol 2010; 30: 66–70.
Brew BJ and Miller J. Human immunodeficiency virus-related
headache. Neurology 1993; 43: 1098–1100.
Denning DW. The neurological features of HIV infection.
Biomed Pharmacother 1988; 42: 11–14.
Evers S, Wibbeke B, Reichelt D, et al. The impact of HIV infection
on primary headache. Unexpected findings from retrospective,
cross-sectional, and prospective analyses. Pain 2000;
85: 191–200.
Hollander H and Strimgari S. Human immunodeficiency virusassociated
meningitis. Clinical course and correlations. Am J
Med 1987; 83: 813–816.
Kirkland KE, Kirkland K, Many Jr WJ and Smitherman
TA. Headache among patients with HIV disease:
prevalence, characteristics, and associations. Headache 2011;
52: 455–466.
Mirsattari SM, Power C and Nath A. Primary headaches in HIVinfected
patients. Headache 1999; 39: 3–10.
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Norval DA. Symptoms and sites of pain experienced by AIDS
patients. S Afr Med J 2004; 94: 450–454.
Rinaldi R, Manfredi R, Azzimondi G, et al. Recurrent 'migrainelike'
episodes in patients with HIV disease. Headache 2007; 37:
443–448.
Valcour V, Chalermchai T, Sailasuta N, et al; on behalf of the
RV254/SEARCH 010 Study Group. Central nervous system
viral invasion and inflammation during acute HIV infection.
J Infect Dis 2012; 206: 275–282.
Weinke T, Rogler G, Sixt C, et al. Cryptococcosis in AIDS
patients: Observations concerning CNS involvement.
J Neurol 1989; 236: 38–42.
A10. Headache attributed to disorder of
homoeostasis
A10.7 Head and/or neck pain attributed to orthostatic
(postural) hypotension
Description:
Pain, mostly in the back of the neck but sometimes
spreading upwards to the occipital region ('coathanger'
distribution), attributed to postural hypotension and
developing only in upright posture.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Orthostatic (postural) hypotension has been
demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by two of the
following:
1. headache develops exclusively during upright
posture
2. headache spontaneously improves in horizontal
posture
3. headache is mostly in the back of the neck,
sometimes spreading upwards to the occipital
region ('coathanger' distribution)
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
When specifically asked, 75% of patients with orthostatic
hypotension reported neck pain.
A10.8 Headache attributed to other disorder of
homoeostasis
A10.8.1 Headache attributed to travel in space
Description:
Non-specific headache caused by travel in space. The
majority of headache episodes are not associated with
symptoms of space motion sickness.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any new headache fulfilling criterion C
B. The subject is travelling through space
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. headache has occurred exclusively during space
travel
2. headache has spontaneously improved on return
to earth
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Of the 16 male and one female astronauts who participated
in a survey, 12 (71%) reported at least one headache
episode experienced while in space, whereas they
had not suffered from headache when on earth.
A10.8.2 Headache attributed to other metabolic or systemic
disorder
Headaches attributed to the following disorders may
occur, but are not sufficiently validated:
anaemia, adrenocortical insufficiency, mineralocorticoid
deficiency, hyperaldosteronism, polycythaemia, hyperviscosity
syndrome, thrombotic thrombocytopaenic purpura,
plasmapheresis, anticardiolipin antibody
syndrome, Cushing's disease, hyponatraemia, hyperthyroidism,
hyperglycaemia, hypercalcaemia, systemic lupus
erythematosus, chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia.
Well-controlled, prospective studies are needed to
define more clearly the incidence and characteristics
of headaches that occur in association with these disorders.
In each case, only those patients who meet
well-established diagnostic criteria for the disorders
themselves should be evaluated.
A10.9 Persistent headache attributed to past disorder of
homoeostasis
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache previously diagnosed as 10. Headache attributed
to disorder of homoeostasis, and fulfilling criterionC
B. The disorder of homoeostasis causing the headache has
been effectively treated or has spontaneously remitted
C. Headache has persisted for >3 months after effective
treatment or spontaneous remission of the disorder
of homoeostasis
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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Bibliography
Cariga P, Ahmed S, Mathias CJ and Gardner BP. The prevalence
and association of neck (coat-hanger) pain and orthostatic
(postural) hypotension in human spinal cord injury. Spinal
Cord 2002; 40: 77–82.
Mathias CJ, Mallipeddi R and Bleasdale-Barr K. Symptoms
associated with orthostatic hypotension in pure autonomic failure
and multiple system atrophy. J Neurol 1999; 246: 893–898.
Vein AA, Koppen H, Haan J, et al. Space headache: A new
secondary headache. Cephalalgia 2009; 29: 683–686.
A11. Headache or facial pain attributed to
disorder of the cranium, neck, eyes, ears,
nose, sinuses, teeth, mouth or other facial
or cervical structure
A11.2 Headache attributed to disorder of the neck
A11.2.4 Headache attributed to upper cervical
radiculopathy
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Head and/or neck pain fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical or radiological evidence of a C2 or C3
radiculopathy
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the
following:
1. at least two of the following:
a) pain has developed in temporal relation to onset
of the radiculopathy, or led to its discovery
b) pain has significantly improved or significantly
worsened in parallel with improvement
in or worsening of the radiculopathy
c) pain is temporarily abolished by local anaesthesia
of the relevant nerve root
2. headache is ipsilateral to the radiculopathy
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Pain is usually posterior but may radiate to more anterior
regions. Often there are lancinations of pain in one
of the areas subserved by the upper cervical roots on
one or both sides, generally in the occipital, retroauricular
or upper posterior cervical regions.
A11.2.5 Headache attributed to cervical myofascial pain
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Head and/or neck pain fulfilling criterion C
B. A source of myofascial pain in the muscles of the
neck, including reproduceable trigger points, has
been demonstrated
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. either or both of the following:
a) pain has developed in temporal relation to
onset of the cervical myofascial pain disorder
b) pain has significantly improved in parallel
with improvement in the cervical myofascial
pain disorder
2. significant pressure-tenderness is elicited in cervical
muscles corresponding to the pain perceived
by the patient
3. pain is temporarily abolished by local anaesthesic
injections into trigger points, or by trigger
point massage
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Myofascial pain and its relation to so-called 'trigger
points' is controversial. It has been difficult consistently
to demonstrate supposed trigger points, and response
to treatment varies.
A11.5 Headache attributed to disorder of the nose or
paranasal sinuses
A11.5.3 Headache attributed to disorder of the nasal
mucosa, turbinates or septum
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Clinical, nasal endoscopic and/or imaging evidence
of a hypertrophic or inflammatory process within
the nasal cavity1
C. Evidence of causation demonstrated by at least two
of the following:
1. headache has developed in temporal relation to
the onset of the intranasal lesion
2. headache has significantly improved or significantly
worsened in parallel with improvement
in (with or without treatment) or worsening of
the nasal lesion
3. headache has significantly improved following
local anaesthesia of the mucosa in the region
of the lesion
4. headache is ipsilateral to the site of the lesion
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
Examples are concha bullosa and nasal septal spur.
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A12. Headache attributed to psychiatric
disorder
Introduction
Headaches are commonly associated with various psychiatric
disorders, but evidence of a causal relationship
is lacking for most. The following are offered as
candidate criterion sets to facilitate research into the
possible causal relationships between certain psychiatric
disorders and headache. It is not recommended
that they be used routinely in clinical practice to
describe the association between comorbid headache
and psychiatric disorders. In the vast majority of
cases, headache associated with these disorders most
probably reflects common underlying risk factors or
aetiologies.
In order to make any of the diagnoses listed below, it
is crucial to establish a causal relationship between the
headache and the psychiatric disorder in question.
Thus, either the headache onset occurs simultaneously
with the psychiatric disorder or the headache clearly
worsens after the psychiatric disorder becomes evident.
Definite biomarkers and clinical proof of headache causation
are difficult to obtain, and the diagnosis should
be based on high levels of clinical suspicion. Thus, for
example, in a child with separation anxiety disorder,
headache should be attributed to this disorder only in
those cases where it occurs solely in the context of
actual or threatened separation, without any better
explanation. Similarly, in an adult with panic disorder,
headache should be attributed to the disorder only in
those cases where it occurs solely as one of the symptoms
of a panic attack.
A12.3 Headache attributed to depressive disorder
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Major depressive disorder (single episode or recurrent)
or persistent depressive disorder has been
diagnosed according to DSM-5 criteria
C. Headache occurs exclusively during depressive
episodes
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Many antidepressants, especially tricyclic antidepressants,
are effective against headache disorders even
when depression is not present. This makes it difficult
to determine whether remission of or improvement in a
headache disorder associated with depression and treated
with a tricyclic antidepressant is, in fact, evidence of
causation. Remission of headache is more suggestive of
a psychiatric cause when a major depressive disorder
improves under treatment with other type of antidepressants
shown to be less effective in headache
treatment.
A12.4 Headache attributed to separation anxiety disorder
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Separation anxiety disorder has been diagnosed
according to DSM-5 criteria
C. Headache occurs exclusively in the context of actual
or threatened separation from home or from major
attachment figures
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Separation anxiety disorder is persistent, typically lasting
at least 6 months, although a shorter duration
may meet diagnostic criteria in cases of acute onset
or exacerbation of severe symptoms (e.g. school refusal,
or complete inability to separate from home or
attachment figures). The disorder causes clinically significant
distress and/or impairment in social, academic,
occupational and/or other important areas of
functioning.
A12.5 Headache attributed to panic disorder
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Recurrent unexpected panic attacks fulfilling DSM-
5 criteria for panic disorder
C. Headache occurs exclusively during panic attacks
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
A12.6 Headache attributed to specific phobia
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Specific phobia has been diagnosed according to
DSM-5 criteria
C. Headache occurs exclusively when the patient is
exposed or anticipating exposure to the phobic
stimulus
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
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Comment:
Specific phobias typically last 6 or more months, causing
clinically significant distress and/or impairment in
social, occupational and/or other important areas of
functioning.
A12.7 Headache attributed to social anxiety disorder
(social phobia)
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Social anxiety disorder (social phobia) has been
diagnosed according to DSM-5 criteria
C. Headache occurs solely when the patient is exposed
or anticipating exposure to social situations
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
In social anxiety disorder (social phobia), there is
marked fear or anxiety about one or more social situations
in which the individual is exposed to possible
scrutiny by others. Examples include social interactions
(e.g. having a conversation), being observed (e.g. eating
or drinking) or performing in front of others (e.g.
giving a speech). The person fears that he or she will
act in a way or show anxiety symptoms that will cause
him or her to be negatively evaluated (e.g. be humiliated,
embarrassed or rejected) or that will offend
others. In children, the fear or anxiety may be expressed
by crying, tantrums, freezing, clinging, shrinking or
failure to speak in social situations. The fear or anxiety
is out of proportion to the actual threat posed by the
social situation. The disorder is persistent, typically
lasting 6 or more months.
A12.8 Headache attributed to generalized anxiety disorder
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Generalized anxiety disorder has been diagnosed
according to DSM-5 criteria
C. Headache occurs solely during periods of anxiety
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Comment:
Patients with generalized anxiety disorder present
excessive anxiety and worry (apprehensive expectation)
about two (or more) domains of activities or events
(e.g. family, health, finances, school/work difficulties),
on more days than not, for 3 months or more.
Symptoms may include restlessness or feeling keyed
up or on edge, and muscle tension. Behaviours associated
with this disorder include avoidance of activities
or events with possible negative outcomes, marked
investment of time and effort in preparing for activities
or events with possible negative outcomes, marked procrastination
in behaviour or decision-making because
of worries, and repeatedly seeking reassurance because
of worries.
A12.9 Headache attributed to post-traumatic stress
disorder
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Any headache fulfilling criterion C
B. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been
diagnosed according to DSM-5 criteria
C. The headache first developed after exposure to the
trauma stressor and occurs solely in the context of
other symptoms of PTSD1
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3
diagnosis.
Note:
1. For example, headache occurs on exposure to
reminders of the trauma.
Comments:
Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury
or sexual violation may occur directly by experiencing
the event, or it may occur indirectly: by witnessing the
event; by learning that the event occurred to a close
family member or friend; by experiencing repeated or
extreme exposure to aversive details of the event (e.g.
first responders collecting human remains; police officers
repeatedly exposed to details of child abuse). This
is not true of exposure through electronic media, television,
movies or pictures, unless this exposure is workrelated.
Given the high rate of comorbid depression with
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the diagnosis
of A12.9 Headache attributed to post-traumatic stress
disorder should be reserved for those patients whose
headache is not explained by comorbid depression
(i.e. cases of headache attributed to PTSD in patients
without comorbid depression).
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Definition of terms
Accompanying symptoms: Symptoms that typically
accompany rather than precede or follow headache.
In migraine, for example, the most frequent are
nausea, vomiting, photophobia and phonophobia;
osmophobia, diarrhoea and other symptoms occur
more rarely.
Anorexia: Lack of appetite and dislike for food to a
mild degree.
Attack of headache (or pain): Headache (or pain) that
builds up, remains at a certain level for minutes to 72
hours, then wanes until it is gone completely.
Aura: Early symptoms of an attack of migraine with
aura, being the manifestations of focal cerebral dysfunction.
The aura typically lasts 20–30 minutes and
precedes the headache. See also: Focal symptoms,
Prodrome, Premonitory symptoms, Warning symptoms
and Neurological symptoms.
Central neuropathic pain: Pain (qv) caused by a lesion
or disease of the central somatosensory nervous
system (see also Neuropathic pain).
Chronic: In pain terminology, chronic denotes persistence
over a period longer than three months. In
headache terminology, it retains this meaning for secondary
headache disorders. For primary headache
disorders that are more usually episodic (qv), chronic
is used whenever attacks of headache (qv) occur on
more days than not over a period longer than 3
months. The trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias are
the exception: in these disorders, chronic is not used
until the disorder has been unremitting for more than
one year.
Close temporal relation: This term is used to describe
the relation between an organic disorder and headache.
Specific temporal relations may be known for
disorders of acute onset where causation is likely, but
have often not been studied sufficiently. For chronic
disorders the temporal relation as well as causation
are often very difficult to ascertain.
Cluster headache attack: One episode of continuous
pain lasting 15–180 minutes.
Cluster period: The time during which cluster headache
attacks occur regularly and at least once every other
day.
Cluster remission period: The time during which attacks
cease to occur spontaneously and cannot be induced
with alcohol or nitroglycerine. To be considered a
remission, the attack-free period must exceed one
month.
Duration of attack: Time from onset until termination
of an attack of headache (or pain) (qv) meeting
criteria for a particular headache type or subtype.
After migraine or cluster headache, a low-grade
non-pulsating headache without accompanying
symptoms may persist, but this is not part of the
attack and is not included in duration. If the patient
falls asleep during an attack and wakes up relieved,
duration is until time of awakening. If an attack of
migraine is successfully relieved by medication but
symptoms recur within 48 hours, these may represent
a relapse of the same attack or a new attack.
Judgement is required to make the distinction (see
also Frequency of attacks).
Episodic: Recurring and remitting in a regular or irregular
pattern of attacks of headache (or pain) (qv) of
constant or variable duration. Through long usage
the term has acquired special meaning in the context
of episodic cluster headache, referring to the occurrence
of cluster periods separated by cluster remission
periods (qv) rather than to attacks. Similar usage has
been adopted in paroxysmal hemicrania.
Facial pain: Pain below the orbitomeatal line, above the
neck and anterior to the pinnae.
Focal symptoms: Symptoms of focal brain (usually cerebral)
disturbance such as occur in migraine aura.
Fortification spectrum: Angulated, arcuate and gradually
enlarging visual hallucination typical of migrainous
visual aura.
Frequency of attacks: The rate of occurrence of attacks
of headache (or pain) (qv) per time period (commonly
one month). Successful relief of a migraine attack
with medication may be followed by relapse within
48 hours. The IHS Guidelines for Controlled Trials of
Drugs in Migraine, 2nd edition, recommended as a
practical solution, especially in differentiating attacks
recorded as diary entries over the previous month, to
count as distinct attacks only those that are separated
by an entire day headache-free.
Headache: Pain (qv) located above the orbitomeatal
line.
Headache days: Number of days during an observed
period of time (commonly 1 month) affected by headache
for any part or the whole of the day.
Heterophoria: Latent strabismus.
Heterotropia: Manifest strabismus.
Intensity of pain: Degree of pain (qv) usually expressed
in terms of its functional consequence and scored on
a verbal four-point scale: 0, no pain; 1, mild pain,
does not interfere with usual activities; 2, moderate
pain, inhibits but does not wholly prevent usual
International Headache Society 2013
ICHD-3 beta 807
activities; 3, severe pain, prevents all activities. It may
also be expressed on a visual analogue scale.
Lancinating: Brief, electric, shock-like along a root or
nerve.
Neuralgia: Pain (qv) in the distribution of a nerve or
nerves. (Common usage, especially in Europe, often
implies a paroxysmal or lancinating (qv) quality, but
the term neuralgia should not be reserved for paroxysmal
pains.)
Neuritis: A special case of neuropathy (qv); the term is
now reserved for inflammatory processes affecting
nerves.
Neuroimaging: CT, MRI, PET, SPECT or scintigraphy
of the brain.
Neuropathic pain: Pain (qv) caused by a lesion or disease
of the somatosensory nervous system.
Neuropathy: A disturbance of function or pathological
change in a nerve or nerves (in one nerve: mononeuropathy;
in several nerves: mononeuropathy multiplex;
when diffuse and bilateral: polyneuropathy).
The term neuropathy is not intended to cover neurapraxia,
neurotmesis, section of a nerve, disturbances
of a nerve due to transient impact such as a blow,
stretching or epileptic discharge (the term neurogenic
applies to pain attributed to such temporary
perturbations).
New headache: Any type, subtype or subform of headache
(qv) from which the patient was not previously
suffering.
Not sufficiently validated: Of doubtful validity as a diagnostic
entity judged from the experience of the subcommittee
and/or controversy in the literature.
Nuchal region: Dorsal (posterior) aspect of upper neck
including the region of insertion of neck muscles on
the cranium.
Pain: An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience
associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or
described in terms of such damage (see also:
Neuropathic pain, Central neuropathic pain and
Peripheral neuropathic pain).
Pericranial muscles: Neck muscles, muscles of mastication,
facial muscles of expression and speech and
muscles of the inner ear (tensor tympani, stapedius).
Peripheral neuropathic pain: Pain (qv) caused by a
lesion or disease of the peripheral somatosensory nervous
system (see also Neuropathic pain).
Phonophobia: Hypersensitivity to sound, usually causing
avoidance.
Photophobia: Hypersensitivity to light, usually causing
avoidance.
Premonitory symptoms: Symptoms preceding and forewarning
of a migraine attack by 2–48 hours,
occurring before the aura in migraine with aura and
before the onset of pain in migraine without aura.
Among the common premonitory symptoms are: fatigue,
elation, depression, unusual hunger, craving for
certain foods.
Pressing/tightening: Pain of a constant quality often
compared to an iron band around the head.
Previously used term: A diagnostic term that has been
used previously with a similar or identical meaning to
the classified term or is subsumed within it.
Previously used terms are often ambiguous and/or
have been used differently in different countries.
Prodrome: This term has been used with different
meanings, most often synonymously with premonitory
symptoms. It should be avoided in the future.
Pulsating: Varying with the heart beat; throbbing.
Referred pain: Pain (qv) perceived in another area than
the one where nociception arises.
Refraction error: Myopia, hypermetropia or
astigmatism.
Scintillation: Visual hallucinations that are bright and
fluctuate in intensity, often at approximately 8–10
cycles/second. They are typical of migraine aura.
Scotoma: Loss of part(s) of the visual field of one or
both eyes. Scotoma may be absolute (no vision) or
relative (obscured or reduced vision).
Stab of pain: Sudden pain (qv) lasting a minute or less
(usually a second or less).
Substance: Organic or inorganic chemical, food or
additive, alcoholic beverage, gas or vapour, drug or
medication, herbal, animal or other substance given
with medicinal intent although not licensed as medicinal
products, etc.
Teichopsia: Synonym for fortification spectrum (qv).
Tenderness: A feeling of discomfort or pain caused by
pressure that would not normally be sufficient to
cause such sensations.
Throbbing: Synonym for pulsating (qv).
Unilateral: On either the right or the left side, not crossing
the mid line. Unilateral headache does not necessarily
involve all of the right or left side of the head,
but may be frontal, temporal or occipital only. When
used for sensory or motor disturbances of migraine
aura it includes complete or partial hemidistribution.
Vasospasm: Constriction of artery or arterioles to such
a degree that tissue perfusion is reduced.
Warning symptoms: Previously used term for either
aura or premonitory symptoms and therefore ambiguous.
It should not be used.
Zigzag line: Synonym for fortification spectrum (qv).
International Headache Society 2013
808 Cephalalgia 33(9)
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